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THE  MODEL  T  FORD  CAR 

ITS  CONSTRUCTION,  OPERATION  AND  REPAIR 


A  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

EXPLAINING  THE  OPERATING  PRINCIPLES  OF  ALL  PARTS 

OF  THE  FORD  AUTOMOBILE,  WITH  COMPLETE  INSTRUCTIONS 

FOR  DRIVING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

INCLUDES 

THE  MOST  THOROUGH  AND  EASILY  UNDERSTOOD 

ILLUSTRATED  INSTRUCTIONS  ON  FORD 

REPAIRING  EVER  PUBLISHED 

BASED  ON  FIVE  YEARS' EXPERIENCE  OF  A  FORD  OPERATOR  —  INVALUABLE 

TO  ALL  FORD  OWNERS,  DEALERS,  SALESMEN,  DRIVERS  AND  REPAIR 

MEN  — EVERY    PHASE    OF    THE    SUBJECT    TREATED    IN     A 

NON-TECHNICAL    YET    COMPREHENSIVE     MANNER 

BY  » 

VICTOR  W.  PAGE,  M.E. 

MEMBER  SOCIETY  OF  AUTOMOBILE   ENGINEERS 
AUTHOR  OF  "THE  MODERN  GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILE,"  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY   OVER  100  SPECIALLY  MADE  DIAGRAMS  AND  DISTINCTIVE 

ORIGINAL  PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  ACTUAL   PARTS,  ALL 

IN  CORRECT  PROPORTION 


NEW  YORK 

THE    NORMAN    W.    HENLEY   PUBLISHING    CO. 

132    NASSAU    STREET 
1917 


Engineerinff 
Library 


^ 


/ 


Sm^' 


Copyrighted  1915  and  1916 

BY 

THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  CO. 


'all  ILLUSlRA'riONS  INTHIi  BOOK  HAVE  BEEN 
•  SPECIAp'LyM^D-H  BY  THE  PUBI.ISUEHS,  AND  THEIR  USE 
1"-     •    \viT«6i;T  PE^lIvflSSJON  SS  S.TRICTLi'  PROHIBITED 


PRESS  OF 

BRAUNWORTH    &   CO. 

BOOK   MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN.    N.    V, 


PREFACE 

There  is  only  one  make  of  motor  vehicle  in  the  world 
that  is  sold  in  large  enough  quantities  to  warrant  the 
publication  of  a  special  treatise  on  its  repair  and  main- 
tenance and  that  is  the  Ford  Model  T,  With  the  close  of 
the  1916  season's  business  there  will  be  at  least  1,000,000 
Ford  cars  of  all  types  in  use,  perhaps  more.  Most  of 
these  cars  have  been  sold  to  and  are  being  operated  by 
persons  with  but  little  mechanical  knowledge  and  with  no 
experience  with  the  gas  engine  as  an  automobile  power 
plant. 

The  maker's  instruction  book  is  excellent  but  it  is 
necessarily  brief  as  there  is  no  opportunity  for  an  ex- 
tended exposition  of  principles  involved.  Many  operators 
desire  to  know  the  first  principles  before  studying  the 
operation  and  repair.  "While  considerable  instruction  is 
given  in  the  writer's  large  work  on  motoring,  ''The  Mod- 
ern Gasoline  Automobile, "  it  is  not  possible  to  cover  any 
specific  make  of  car  completely  in  a  general  treatise. 

Many  requests  have  been  received  from  motorists  for 
a  book  on  the  Ford  car  that  would  enter  into  elementary 
exposition  more  than  the  manufacturer's  instruction  book 
does  and  cover  some  of  the  points  involved  in  repair  and 
maintenance  more  completely. 

The  writer  has  operated  a  Ford  car  of  his  own  for 
nearly  four  years  and  has  had  many  other  cars  of  the 
same  make  under  observation.  This  has  made  the  collec- 
tion of  much  data  pertaining  to  repair  and  maintenance 

9 

735751 


10  Preface 

from  first  hand  sources  j^ossible  and  has  resulted  in  an 
appreciation  of  some  of  the  points  about  which  more  in- 
formation could  be  imparted  to  advantage.  Special  johoto- 
grajDhs  have  been  taken  and  drawings  made  to  make  the 
subject  matter  easy  of  comprehension,  even  to  the  student 
and  non-mechanical  owner.  Needless  to  say,  the  general 
repairman  and  dealer  will  also  find  much  of  interest  in 
this  volume. 

The  instructions  given  apply  to  the  Ford  cars  as  pro- 
duced by  the  factory.  So  many  accessory  systems  such 
as  lighting  regulators,  self-starters,  auxiliary  springs, 
etc.,  are  offered  for  Ford  cars  that  it  would  require  a 
volume  to  consider  these  alone,  so  they  are  not  referred  to 
in  tliis  volume  because  complete  instructions  for  their  in- 
stallation and  care  may  be  obtained  from  their  makers. 
As  practically  no  mechanical  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  Ford  car  mechanism  for  1917,  the  instructions  given 
apply  to  the  new  models  as  well  as  those  that  have  pre- 
ceded them. 

VICTOR  W    PAGE. 

October,  1916. 


CONTEXTS 


CHAPTER    I 
THE   FORD   CAR,   ITS   PARTS   AND   THEIR    FUNCTIONS 

PAGES 

Important  Components  of  Any  Motor  Car — Parts  of  Ford  Automobile 
Chassis — The  Ford  Tliree  Point  Suspension  System — Frame  As- 
sembly Details— Spring  Construction — The  Ford  Body — The 
Ford   Power   Plant 21-44 


CHAPTER    II 

THE    ENGINE    AND    AUXILIARY    GROUPS 

Ho-w  the  Engine  Works — Engine  Parts  and  Their  Functions — The 
Fuel  Supply  System — Principles  of  Carburetion  Outlined — 
Utility  of  Gasoline  Strainer — What  the  Carburetor  Should  Do 
— The  Ford  Float  Feed  Carburetor — The  Ford  Igiiition  System 
— Induction  Coil  System  Action  Explained — Why  a  ^lagneto 
Is  Used  on  the  Ford — Wiring  Dry  Cell  Batteries — ^Master  Vi- 
brator Systems — Why  Cooling  Systems  Are  Necessary — Cooling 
Systems  Generally  Used — Ford  Water  Circulation  Methods — 
Theory  of  Lubrication — Derivation  of  Lubricants — How  Ford 
Power  Plant  is  Lubricated— The  Ford  Muffler 45-98 

CHAPTER    III 

DETAILS    OF    THE    FORD    CHASSIS    PARTS 

Wliy  Clutch  is  Necessary — How  Friction  Clutches  Transmit  Power — 
^^"hy  Change  Speed  Gearing  Is  Needed — How  Ford  Planetary 
Gearing  Operates — ^Method  of  Power  Transmission — Rear  Axle 
Construction — The  Ford  Axle  Bearings — Purpose  of  Differen- 
tial   Gear — Utility    of   Motor    Car    Brakes — The    Ford    Steering 

Gear       .      .      .     " 99-132 

11 


12  Contents 

CHAPTER    IV 
DRIVING    AND    MAINTENANCE    OF    FORD    CARS 

PAGES 

Steps  Before  Starting  the  Engine — How  to  Start  the  Ford  Motor — 
Controlling  Ford  Cars — General  Driving  Instructions — Sugges- 
tions for  Oiling — Winter  Care  of  Automobiles — The  Ford  Gas 
Lighting  System — Electric  Lighting  for  Ford  Cars — Tools  and 
Supplies  for  Pneumatic  Tire  Repair — Tire  Manipulation  Hints  ^ 
— Tire  Repair  and  Maintenance — Tools  for  Ford  Cars — A  Typi- 
cal Engine  Stop  Analyzed — Conditions  That  Cause  Failure  of 
the  Ignition  System — Common  Defects  in  Fuel  Systems — Faults 
in  Oiling  and  Cooling  Systems — Adjvisting  Transmission — Ad- 
justing Loose  Front  Wheels — What  to  Do  When  Rear  Brakes 
Do  Not  Hold 133-208 

CHAPTER    V 

OVERHAULING  AND    REPAIRING   MECHANISM 

Faults  in  Power  Plant  and  Symptoms — Value  of  System  in  Over- 
hauling— How  to  Take  Down  Motor — Carbon  Deposits  and 
Their  Removal — How  to  Repair  Cracked  Water  Jacket — Re- 
seating and  Trueing  Valves — Method  of  Valve  Grinding — In- 
spection of  Piston  Rings — Piston  Ring  Manipulation — Fitting 
Piston  Rings — Wrist  Pin  Wear — Inspection  and  Refitting  of 
Engine  Bearings — Knocking  Indicates  Loose  Bearings — Adjust- 
ing Main  Bearings — Scraping  Bearings  to  Fit — Rebabbitting 
Connecting  Rod — Testing  Bearing  Parallelism — Camshafts  and 
Timing  Gears — How  to  Time  Valves  in  Ford  Engines — Repair- 
ing Ford  Magneto — Packings  and  Gaskets  for  Ford  Engines — 
Precautions  in  Reassembling  PartS' — How  to  Take  Down  Trans- 
mission— Relining  Brake  Bands^ — Rear  Axle  Troubles  and  Reme- 
dies— Care  of  Springs — Steering  Gear  Repairs — Miscellaneous 
Chassis   Parts 209-279 

INDEX 281 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

CHAPTER    T 

PAGE 
Fig.  1. — Plan   View   of   the   Ford   Chassis   Showing   Relative   Loca- 
tion   of    Important    Components 26 

Fig.  2.— Sectional  View  of  Ford  Model  T  Touring  Car  Showing 
Construction  of  Chassis  and  Body  Parts.      (Foldimj  Plate) 

Fig.  3. — Side  View  of  Stripped  Ford  Chassis  Showing  Valve  Side 

of  Motor .        30 

Fig.  4.— Control  Side  of  Stripped  Ford  Model  T  Chassis     ...        32 

Fig.  0. — Plan  View  of  Ford  Frame  with  Power  Plant  and  Rear  Axle 
in  Place  Showing  Three  Point  Suspension  Principle  Utilized  in 
This   Design  34 

Fie    6.— Front  View  of  Ford  Chassis  Showing  Front  Axle  and  Spring 

Suspension •-*" 

Fig.  7. — Rear  View  of  Ford  Mo<lel  T  Chassis  Depicting  Method  of 
Attaching  Rear  Construction  to  Frame 

Fig.  8.— Valve  Side  of  the  Ford  Model  T  Unit  Power  Plant  Show- 
ing Manifolds,  Carburetor  and  Interior  of  One  of  the  Valve 
Spring  Chambers ^^ 

CHAPTER  II 

Fig.  9. — Simple  Diagrams  Showing  the  Various  Cycles  of  Operation 
Necessary  to  Obtain  an  Explosion  in  the  Four  Stroke  Gasoline 
Engine  Cylinder.  A — Suction.  B — Compression.  C — Expan- 
sion.     D— Exhaust -^9 

Fig.  10. — Diagram  Showing  the  Relation  of  the  Pistons  and  Crank 
Shaft  Throws  of  the  Ford  Four  Cylinder  Motor  when  Piston 
No.  1  is  about  to  Receive  the  Force  of  Gas  Exploded  in  the 

Combustion  Chamber ^^ 

13 


38 


14  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 
Fig.  11. — Part    Sectional    View    of    the    Ford    Four    Cylinder    Unit 
Power   Plant    Showing   Important    Parts    of   the    Power    Gen- 
erating and  Transmission  System 56 

Fig.  12. — Depicting  the  Distinctive  Design  of  the  Ford  Motor  which 
Employs  a  Removable  Cylinder  Head  to  Permit  Ready  Access 
to  the  Combustion  Chambers,  Valves  and  Piston  Parts        .        .        58 

Fig.  13. — Showing  Method  of  Ford  Valve  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion     60 

Fig.  14.— The  Ford  Model  T  Fuel  Supply  and  Gas  Making  System       65 

Fig.  15. — Part  Sectional  A'iew  of  Special  Kingston  t!arburetor  Used 

on  some  Ford  Model  T  Cars 69 

Fig.  16. — View  of  Ford  Power  Plant  Sliowing  Main  Parts  of  the 
Ford  Ignition  System.  Note  Location  of  Timer  and  Induction 
Coil  Box 72 

Fig.  17. — Diagram  of  Simple  High  Tension  Ignition  System  for 
One  Cylinder  Motor  to  show  Arrangement  and  Wiring  of 
the   Principal   Parts 74 

Fig.  18. — Wiring   Diagram    Showing   Method    of    Connecting   Parts 

of  the  Ford  Ignition  System 76 

Fig.   19. — Parts  of  the  Ford  Ignition  Timer 78 

Pig.  20. — Showing  Coils  and  Magnets  that  Comprise  the  Ford 
Magneto  and  their  Relation  to  the  Flywheel  and  Transmis- 
sion   Gear 79 

Fig.  21. — Views  Showing  Construction  of  Stationary  Magneto  Coil 
Carrying  Member  at  Left  and  Rotary  Magnet  Carrier  that 
Also  Acts  as  the  Motor  Flywheel  at. Right 80 

Fig.  22. — Illustrating  Method  of  Connecting  Dry  Cells  in  Series  at 
A  and  in  Series  Multiple  at  B.  The  Lower  Illustration  Shows 
Some  of  the  Points  to  be  Watched  For  When  Dry  Cells  Are 
Installed  in  Metal  Battery  Boxes 82 

Fig.  23. — Showing  Application  of  Master  Vibrator  in  Ford  Ignition 

System  85 

Fig.  24. — The  Ford   Thermo-Syphon   Water  Cooling  Svstem      .        .        89 

Fig.  25. — Sectional    View    Defining    Construction    and    Method    of 

Operation   of  the  Ford  Exhaust  Gas  Silencer      ....       97 


•  l- 


List  of  Illustrations  15 

CHArTEK      III 

PAGE 

Y\g.  26. — Plan  View  of  the  Ford  Planetary  Gearing  Showing 
-Method  of  Carrying  Triple  Planetary  Spur  Pinion  Assemblies 
and   Actuating  the  High   Speed  Disc   Clutch   Assembly    .        .      Ki4 

Fig.  27. — Part  Sectional  Wevc  of  the  Ford  Planetary  Gearing  Show- 
iusf  the  Relation  of  the  Planetary  Pinion  Assentbly,  the  Re- 
verse,  Slow  Speed  and  Foot  Brake  Drums  and  the  Clutch  Disc 
Assembly 10" 

Fig.  2S. — Phantom  View  of  the  Ford  Planetary  Gearset  Showing 
the  Control  Pedal  Assembly  at  Top.  View  of  Gearing  Par- 
tially Disassembled  Showing  Brake  Bands  and  Other  Parts 
at    the   Bottom 109 

Fig.  29. — Cutaway  View  of  the  Ford  Rear  Axle  Differential  Hous- 
ing Showing  Arrangement  of  Bevel  Driving  Gearing  and 
Differential   Gears Ill 

Fig.  .30. — Sectional  View  of  Ford  Model  T  Rear  Axle  Showing 
Driving  Gears,  Differential,  Power  Transmission  Shafts  and 
Supporting  Bearings 113 

Fig.  31. — Types  of  Anti-Friction  Bearings  Used  in  the  Ford  Car. 
A — Cup  and  Cone  Type  Angular  Contact  Ball  Bearings  Simi- 
lar to  Those  Used  in  the  Front  Wheels.  B — Hyatt  Flexible 
Roller  Bearing.  C — Special  Ball  Bearings  for  Resisting  End 
Thrust  Only  116 

Fig.  32. — Sectional  View  of  Ford  Front  Wheel  Hub  Showing  Method 

of  Installing   Cup   and   Cone   Type   Ball   Bearings      .        .        .118 

Fig.  33. — Simplified  Diagram  to  Accompany  Explanation  of  Differ- 
ential  Gear   Action 121 

Fig.  34. — End  View   of  Ford   Rear   Axle   with   Wheel   Removed   to 

Show   Emergency   Brake    Construction 124 

Fig.  35. — Top  View  of  the  Ford  Steering  Gear  at  A,  Showing 
Steering  Wheel  and  Motor  Speed  Controlling  Levers.  Plane- 
tary Reduction  Gearing  is  Depicted  at  B,  which  Shows  Gear 
Compartment    with    Cover    Removed 126 

Fig.  36. — Sectional  View  of  Standard  Clincher  Double  Tube  Pneu- 
matic Tire  Such  as  Used  on  Ford  Cars 129 

Fig.  37. — Sectional  View  Showing  Construction  of  Standard 
Schrader  Universal  Check  Valve  For  Introducing  Air  to  Pneu- 
matic Tire  Inner  Tubes.  This  is  Utilized  In  Practically  All 
Tires  of  American   Manufacture 130 


16  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGE 

Fig.  38. — Chart    Showing   Positions    of    Engine    Control   Levers    on 
Steering  Post  Quadrants  for  Various  Conditions  of  Car  Opera- 
tion.    These  are  the  Average  Positions  and  may  Vary  Slightly 
on  Different  Ford  Cars     {Folding  Tabled 


CHAPTEE     IV 

Fig.  39. — Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Marking  Measuring  Stick  to 

Indicate   Contents  of  Ford  Ten   Gallon   Tank      ....      134 

Fig.  40. — Illustrating  Correct  Method  of  Grasping  Starting  Crank 

to  Avoid  Injury  Due  to  Back  Kick 138 

Fig.  41. — Showing  "Wrong  Method   of  Exerting  Pressure  on  Crank 

When  Starting  Motor 140 

Fig.  42.— The  Control  System  of  the  Ford  Model  T  Car     .        .        .      143 

Fig.  43. — Showing  Method  of  Applying  Non-Skid  Chain  to  Driving 

"Wheels  to  Insure  Adequate  Traction  on  Wet  or  Slippery  Eoads     147 

Fig.  44. — Plan  View  of  Ford  Model  T  Chassis  Showing  Important 
Points  Eequiring  Lubrication  and  When  This  Attention  is 
Needed 149 

Fig.  45. — Method  of  Oiling  the  Ford  Commutator  or  Timer  With 
Light  Oil.  Note  Breather  Opening  Back  of  Timer  Through 
Which  Oil  is  Poured  into  Crank  Case 150 

Fig.  46. — Devices  to  Facilitate  Starting  Ford  Motor  in  Cold 
Weather.  A — Injex  Primer.  B — Spark  Plug  With  Priming 
Valve   Attachment 157 

Fig.  47. — Acetylene  Gas  Lighting  System  Similar  to  That  L'sed  for 
Ford  Lights  on  1910  to  1914  Models.  1915  Ford  Cars  Have 
Electric  Head  Lights 159 

Fig.  48. — Lamps  and  Fixtures  Adapted  for  Electric  Current     .        .      161 

Fig.  49. — Simple  Wiring  Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Installing 
Storage  Battery  or  Multiple-Series  Dry  Battery  for  Operating 
Electric  Side  and  Tail  Lamps 163 

Fig.  50. — Tools  and  Supplies  for  Pneumatic  Tire  Maintenance,  Ap- 
plication and  Eepair 166 

Fig.  51. — Showing  Method  of  Eeleasing  Clincher  Casing  from  Eim. 
A — Inserting  the  Tire  Iron.  B — Eaising  the  Bead.  C — 
Working  the  Clincher  Bead  Over  the  Edge  of  the  Eim.  D — 
Method  of  Guiding  Bead  Over  the  Eim 169 


Lhit  of  Ilh/st rations  1 7 

r.vcK 
Fig.  52. — Proper  Methods  of  Haiulliiig  Tire  Irons  in  Ronioviii^ 
and  Replacing  Oiitor  Casings  on  Clincher  Hiiiis  at  A  and  B. 
How  Inner  Tube  May  Be  Pinched  if  Tire  iron  is  Carelessly 
Manipulated  at  C.  Inner  Tube  May  Be  Pinched  if  Placed 
in  Casing  Without  Being  Partially  Inflated  as  at  I)     .  17] 

Fig.  5.3. — Cross  Section  of  Typical  Clincher  Tire  Showing  Defec- 
tive Points  that  Demand  Attention  When  Restoring  Tires 
to  Proper  Condition 1"4 

Yig.  54. — Showing    the    Application    of    Inner    and    Outer    Casing 

Sleeves  as  a  Temporary  Repair  for   Ruptured   Outer   Casings     170 

Fig.  55. — Special  Tool   Outfit   for  Repairing   Ford   Cars      .        .        .      179 

Yig.  56. — Tools  That  Will  Be  Valuable  When  Overhauling  or  Re- 
pairing Ford  Automobiles.  A — Special  Pliers  for  Removing 
and  Inserting  Split  Pin.  B — Chisel  and  Punch  Set.  C — 
Carbon  Scrapers.  D— Socket  Wrench.  E— Bearing  Scrapers. 
F— Ratchet  and  Socket  Wrench  Set.  G— Double  End  Box 
Wrench.     H— Spark   Plug  Brush 1^1 

Yig.  57. — Method  of  Testing  Regularity  of  Engine  Action  by  Hold- 
ing Down  Coil  Vibrators 1"^^ 

Yig,  58. — Sectional  View  of  Dry  Cell  Showing  interior  Construc- 
tion at  A  and  Metliod  of  Testing  Current  Output  With 
Amperemeter    at    B ^^'^ 

Fig.   .59.— Showing  Methods  of  Adjusting  Air  Gaps  in  Spark  Plugs  188 

Fig.  60.— Method  of  Adjusting  Transmission  Brake  Band     .        .         .  lf»9 

Fig.  61.— How  to  Tigliten  Slipping  High  Speed  Cliit.-li      .        .        .  -<><» 

Fig.  62. — Testing  for  Front  Wheel  Looseness -'*- 

Fie    63— Showing  Use  of  Special  Ford  Wrench  in  Adjusting  Front 

Wheel  Bearings .      _  . 

Fig.  64.— Method    of    Testing    Rear    Wheel    Brakes,    Also    W.-ar    in 

Axle    Bearings " 

Fig.  65.— How    to    Use    Wheel    Puller    for    Removing    Wheel    From 

Taper  Axle  End -'^'' 

Ficr    66— Wheel  Removed  to  Show  Internal  E.xpanding   Brake  Con- 

'  ''07 

struction 


18  List  of  lUustratiom 


CHAPTER    V 

PAGE 

Fig.  67. — Showing  Method  of  Providing  Boxes  for  Keeping  Parts 

Together  in  Overhauling  Cars  Systematically      ....      212 

Fig.  68. — The  First  Step  in  Removing  the  Ford  Engine  From  the 

Chassis  Is  to  Take  the  Radiator  From  the  Front  of  the  Frame     214 

Fig.  69. — Showing  Method  of  Removing  Copper  Asbestos  Gasket 
Used  Between  Cylinder  Head  and  Cylinder  Block  Casting 
of  the  Ford  Engine 217 

Fig.  70. — Method  of  Removing  Inlet  and  Exhaust  Manifold     .        .219 

Fig.  71. — Valve  Chamber  Cover  Plates  Must  Be  Removed  to  Gain 

Access  to  the  Valve  Springs 220 

Fig.  72. — How    Ford    Piston    May    Be    Withdrawn    Through    Top 

of    Motor 221 

Fig.  73. — Bottom  View  of  Ford  Engine  With  Pressed  Steel  Lower 

Crank  Case  Member  Removed 222 

Fig.  74. — Method   of  Removing  Carbon  Deposits  from   Piston  Top 

and  Cylinder  Block 22.3 

Fig.   75. — Method  of  Compressing  Valve  Spring  in  Order  to  Remove 

Valve  Seat  Pin  by  Using  Ford  Valve  Spring  Lifter     .        .        .     227 

Fig.  76. — Special  Tool  for  Raising  Valve  Springs  When  Inlet  and 

Exhaust  Manifolds  are  Taken  Off  of  the  Cylinder  Block    .        .     228 

Fig.  77. — Showing  Use  of  Valve  Seat  Reamer  for  Smoothing  Scored 

or  Pitted  Valve  Seats 229 


.TO 


Fig.  7.H. — Showing  L'se  of  Special  Tool  for  Grinding  Ford  Valves 

Fig.  79. — Showing    Method    of    Removing    Piston    Rings    Without 

Damaging  Them -^-^ 

Fig.  80. — Showing  Method  of  Testing  Main  Bearings  When  Refitting 

by  Rocking  the  Crank  Shaft  by  Hand 2.37 

Fig.  81. — Showing   Method   of   Scraping  in   Main   Bearings   tc   Fit 

Crank  Shaft  Journals -^1 

Fig.  82. — Method  of  Fastening  Magnets  in  Place  on  Flywheel.   Note 
Planetarv   Triple   Gear   Assemblies   of   Transmission   in   Fore- 

,    '  •'42 

grounil 


List  of  Illustrations  19 

PAGE 

Fig.  83. — Illustrations  Showiug  Method  of  Ee-babbittiug  Connecting 
Rod  Bearings  at  A  and  Method  of  Testing  Connecting  Rod 
Bearing  Parallelism  at  B 247 

Fig.  84. — Connecting  Rod  Bearings  May  be  Easily  Fitted  to  the 
Crank  Shaft  if  This  Member  is  Removed  from  the  Engine  and 
Supported  by  Bench  Vise 249 

Fig.  85. — Illustrating  Method  of  Scraping  in  Connecting  Rod  Bear- 
ings and  Tools  Used  in  This  Process 250 


'o'^ 


Fig.  86. — Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Timing  Ford  Valves     .        .      254 

Fig.  87. — Copper  Asbestos  Gaskets  Used  on  Ford  Motor     .        .        .      258 

Fig.  88. — Group  Showing  Felt  Packings  for  Ford  Power  Plant  and 

Also  for  Retaining  Oil  in  Running  Gear  Parts     ....      260 

Fig.  89. — Plate  Showing  Parts  Comprising  the  Ford  Transmission 
When  Disassembled  at  A,  and  When  Joined  Together  to  Form 
Various  Groups  to  Facilitate  Assembly  at  C,  D  and  E     .        .      263 

Fig.  90. — Showing  How  Transmission  Cover  is  Removed  to  Permit 

Reaching  Transmission   Brake  Bands 268 

Fig.  91. — Removing  Transmission  Brake  Band  for  Replacing  Fric- 
tion  Lining 271 

Fig.  92. — How  Friction  Lining  is  Riveted  to  Brake  Bands    .         .         .      273 

Fig.  93. — Rear   Axle    Partially   Disassembled    to    Show    Differential 

and  Supporting  Bearings 275 

Fig.  94. — Outlining     Method     of     Ford     Front     and     Rear     Spring 

Retentioii 278 


THE  FORD  MODEL  T  CAR 


CHAPTER    I 

THE  FORD  CAE,  ITS  PARTS  AND  TIIETR  FUNCTIONS 

Important  Components  of  Any  Motor  Car — Parts  of  Ford  Automobile 
Chassis — The  Ford  Three  Point  Suspension  System — Frame  Assembly 
Details — Spring  Construction — The  Ford  Body — The  Ford  Power 
Plant. 

Ix  order  to  have  any  subject  easily  understood  by  tlie 
la\mian,  especially  if  it  is  a  mechanical  topic  or  one  with 
which  the  public  at  large  is  not  thoroughly  familiar,  it  is 
always  necessary  to  consider  first  of  all  the  basic  principles 
underlying  the  oyjcration  of  the  mechanism  discussed. 
Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  subject  to  a  degree  may 
consider  this  matter  su]ierfluous  because  it  is  a  review  of 
things  of  which  they  already  have  some  knowledge.  The 
person  who  seeks  information,  especially  the  purchaser  of 
an  automobile  who  intends  to  operate  it  himself,  in  many 
cases  does  not  have  the  slightest  conception  of  mechanics. 
It  is  necessary  to  describe  fully  the  various  x^arts  and  how 
tliej  operate  and  why  they  work, qs,  they  do. before  any 
attempt  is  made  to  give  suggesvions  for  their  care  or 
operation.  \      .  ■ 

In  making  repairs  or  looking  for  troubles  the  man 
who  is  familiar  with  the  principles  of  action  of  the  parts 
at  fault  is  nearly  always  able  to  locate  the  trouble  whereas 
those  who  are  not  posted  on  the  methods  of  working  are 
at  a  loss  because  they  do  not  know  where  to  start  to  look 

21 


22  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

for  derangements.  The  automobile  has  been  tlie  greatest 
l)opular  mechanical  educator  ever  devised,  but  it  is  a  much 
simpler  and  less  expensive  process  to  acquire  this  knowl- 
edge by  becoming  familiar  with  the  experience  of  others 
instead  of  learning  all  the  points  involved  by  the  slow 
and  uncertain  process  of  actual  personal  experience.  In 
preparing  this  treatise  the  writer  believes  that  it  will 
have  more  value  for  most  of  those  it  is  desired  to  in- 
struct if  the  assumption  is  made  that  the  reader  knows  ab- 
solutely nothing  regarding  automobile  construction.  For 
this  reason,  the  exposition  starts  with  a  description  of 
the  parts  that  are  absolutely  necessary  to  secure  success- 
ful operation  of  any  self-propelled  road  vehicle,  then  vari- 
ous units  of  the  car  discussed  are  described  and  their 
functions  outlined.  Endeavor  has  been  made  to  present 
the  information  in  a  clear  manner  and  to  avoid  technicali- 
ties. It  is  desirable,  however,  that  mechanical  terms  be 
used  and  all  parts  called  by  their  correct  names,  ready 
identification  being  provided  by  clear,  lettered  illus- 
trations. 

Important  Components  of  Any  Motor  Car. — In  this  era 
of  jirogress,  one  would  hesitate  to  assert  that  the  motor 
car  had  been  perfected  or  it  had  reached  a  finality  in  de- 
sign, though  the  experience  of  the  last  few  years  would 
justify  one  assuming  that  the  principles  of  construction 
now  applied  so  successfriily  may  reasonably  be  considered 
permanent.  The  elements  which  have  been  proven  essen- 
tial to  insure  suc'cessful  operation  of  all  self-propelled  con- 
veyances may  be  easily  defined  as  follows : 

First :  The  endeavor  of  modern  constructors  is  to  make 
all  operating  parts  of  such  material,  size  and  strength, 
that  the  severe  strains  imposed  by  the  rough  nature  of 
the  average  road  surface  will  be  resisted  adequately  and 


All  to  mobile  Essentials  23 

to  secure  endurance  and  serviceability  under  all  possible 
conditions  of  operation. 

Second:  The  mechanism  should  be  as  simple  as  it  is 
possible  to  make  it,  as  this  promotes  ease  of  repairing, 
facility  in  handling,  and  lessens  the  liability  of  trouble 
by  reducing  complication.  The  parts  should  be  in  proper 
proportion  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  relative  to 
each  other  that  one  may  be  removed  or  replaced  without 
disturbing  other  correlated  appliances. 

Third:  The  power  furnished  by  the  gasoline  engine 
carried  in  the  frame  must  be  transmitted  to  the  traction 
wheels  or  to  the  revolving  shafts  to  which  they  are  fastened 
with  as  little  friction  and  power  loss  as  is  possible. 

Fourth:  The  two  driven  wheels  (preferably  the  rear 
ones)  must  be  connected  to  some  fomi  of  compensating 
or  balance  gear  which  enables  each  wheel  to  revolve  in- 
dependently of  the  other  at  times  and  at  different  veloci- 
ties, because  in  turning  corners  the  outer  wheel  describes 
a  larger  arc  and  consequently  a  longer  path  than  the 
inner  member.  The  differential  gear  was  one  of  the  most 
important  elements  which  made  for  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  the  automobile. 

Fifth:  The  steering  should  be  done  by  the  two  front 
wheels  which  are  carried  at  the  ends  of  a  yoke  axle  which 
is  securely  fastened  to  the  chassis  frame  by  means  of  the 
springs.  The  wheels  are  carried  on  steering  knuckles 
which  must  be  arranged  to  assume  different  angles  when 
the  vehicle  is  turning  corners  or  deviates  from  a  straight 
path  in  order  to  secure  jDositive  steering. 

Sixth :  Springs  must  be  provided  which  will  have  suf- 
ficient strength  and  elasticity  to  neutralize  vibration  and 
allow  for  unevenness  of  the  road  surface  by  their  yielding 
qualities  and  thus  reduce  body  movement.     In  order  to 


24  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

relieve  the  machinery,  running  gear  and  passengers  of 
the  inevitable  vibration  which  obtains  at  even  moderate 
speed  on  ordinary  roads,  the  wheels  should  be  provided 
with  very  resilient  tires,  preferably  of  the  pneumatic  or 
inflated  forms  for  pleasure  cars,  and  cushion  or  solid 
rubber  on  the  heavier  and  slower-moving  motor  trucks. 

Seventh:  The  gas  supply  to  the  motor,  the  ignition 
of  the  charge,  and  the  continuation  of  the  cycle  of  engine 
operations  should  be  automatic  and  require  no  attention 
from  the  operator  after  the  motor  is  once  started.  To 
secure  continued  operation,  mechanical  means  must  be 
provided  for  constant  lubrication  of  all  moving  parts. 
All  components  which  have  movement  relative  to  other 
parts  should  move  Avith  as  little  power  loss  by  friction 
as  possible,  in  order  to  conserve  the  available  motor  en- 
ergy for  tractive  purposes.  Anti-friction  bearings  of  the 
ball  or  roller  type  should  be  employed  on  all  rotating 
shafts  in  the  power  j^lant,  transmission  system,  and  in  the 
wheels  to  save  power. 

Eighth:  The  center  of  gravity  must  be  carried  rela- 
tively low,  which  involves  placing  the  body  as  close  to 
the  ground  as  practical  considerations  will  permit.  The 
wheel  base,  which  is  the  distance  between  front  and  rear 
wheel  centers,  should  be  long,  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
result  in  tractive  effort,  steering  and  comfortable  riding. 
The  power  plant  and  other  essential  mechanism  should  be 
carried  on  a  frame  which  will  be  supported  in  such  a 
manner  that  road  shocks  will  not  be  transmitted  to  them 
and  so  coupled  together  that  no  frame  distortion  will  pro- 
duce disalignment  of  the  driving  shafts. 

Ninth:  The  control  elements  must  be  designed  with  a 
view  to  easy  handling.  This  means  that  the  steering  gear 
should  be  practically  irreversible — i.e.,  the  hand  wheel 


Ford  Chassis  Details  25 

should  not  be  affected  by  side  movement  of  the  front 
wheels,  thus  relieving  the  driver's  arms  of  all  undue 
strain  while  driving.  Motor  regulation  should  be  by  levers 
placed  convenient  to  the  driver's  hands  or  feet,  and  gear 
shifting  should  be  accomplished  without  difficulty.  Pow- 
erful brakes  must  be  employed  to  insure  positive  check 
of  vehicle  motion  whenever  it  is  desired  to  bring  the 
conveyance  to  a  stop.  It  is  evident  that  the  levers  through 
which  the  brakes  are  operated  should  be  so  proportioned 
that  a  minimum  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  operator 
will  serve  to  check  the  vehicle  immediately. 

Parts  of  Ford  Automobile  Chassis. — A  brief  explanation 
of  the  function  of  each  part  of  the  Ford  gasoline  car 
chassis  depicted  at  Figs.  1  and  2  will  serve  to  afford  a 
better  understanding  of  the  construction  of  an  automobile. 
The  purpose  of  the  front  axle  is  not  unlike  that  of  a 
horse-drawn  vehicle,  but  it  is  much  different  in  construc- 
tion. The  Avheels  are  installed  on  movable  spindles,  or 
steering  knuckles,  which  are*  supported  by  yokes  penuit- 
ting  one  to  move  the  wheels  for  steering  rather  than  turn- 
ing the  entire  axle  on  a  fifth  wheel,  or  jack-bolt  arrange- 
meiit,  as  in  a  horse-drawn  vehicle.  This  axle  is  attached 
to  the  frame  by  spring  member  which  allows  a  certain 
degree  of  movement  without  producing  corresponding  mo- 
tion of  the  frame.  The  radiator,  which  is  placed  directly 
over  the  axle  in  front  of  the  motor,  is  employed  to  hold 
the  water  used  in  keeping  the  engine  cool,  and  is  an 
important  part  of  the  heat-radiating  system.  The  start- 
ing handle  is  a  ci'ank  b}'^  which  the  motor  crank  shaft  is 
given  sufficient  initial  movement  by  the  operator  to  carry 
the  engine  parts  through  one  or  more  portions  of  the 
cycle  of  operations,  this  starting  the  engine.  The  tiebar 
joins   the   arms   of  the   steering   spindles   on   which   the 


Steeriag  Arm 


Front  Kadius  Rods 


Tire- 


Magneto  &  Transmission- 
Pedals 


-Universal.  Joint 


Hub  Brake 
Assembly 


-Front  Axle 
-Front  Wheel 


-Oommutator 


Steering  Gear 
"Rods 


Jasoline  Feed  Pipe 
-Fill  Here 


-Drive  Shaft 
-Break  Pull  Rod 

-Rear  Axle  Radius  Rod 
-Muffler 


Emergency 
Brake 


Fig.  1. — Plan  View  of  the  Ford  Chassis  Showing  Relative  Location  of 

Important  Components. 

26 


Ford  Chassis  Details  2 


z  i 


wheels  revolve,  and  insures  that  these  will  swing  together 
and  in  the  same  direction,  either  to  the  right  or  left.  The 
steering  link,  often  called  the  ''drag  link,"  connects  one 
of  the  steering  knuckles  of  the  front  axle  with  the  steer- 


ing gear. 


The  motor  is  a  four-cylinder  four-cycle  type,  to  be 
described  in  proper  sequence.  The  dash  is  a  wooden  par-  ■ 
tition  placed  back  of  the  power  plant  to  separate  the 
engine  space  from  the  seating  compartment.  It  is  em- 
])lo3"ed  to  support  some  of  the  auxiliary  apparatus  neces- 
sary to  motor  action  or  some  of  the  control  elements. 
The  clutch  is  a  device  operated  by  a  pedal,  which  per- 
mits the  motor  power  to  be  coupled  to  the  gearset,  and 
from  thence  to  the  driving  wheels,  or  interrupted  at  the 
will  of  the  operator.  It  is  used  in  starting  and  stopping 
the  car,  and  whenever  the  speed  is  changed.  The  pedals 
are  foot-operated  levers,  one  of  which  releases  the  clutch 
and  applies  the  slow  speed;  one  is  used  to  reverse  the 
car,  the  other  applies  the  running  brake  on  the  trans- 
mission. The  motor  control  levers  on  the  steering  col- 
umn are  used  in  conjunction  to  vary  the  rotative  speed 
of  the  motor,  and  thus  regulate  the  energy  produced  in 
proportion  to  the  work  to  be  j^erformed.  The  emergency 
brake  lever  applies  a  powerful  braking  effect  w^lien  it  is 
desired  to  stop  the  car  quickly,  and  also  when  one  wishes 
to  lock  the  brakes  if  the  car  movement  is  arrested  on  a 
down  grade.  The  steering  wheel  actuates  the  mechanism 
which  moves  the  wheels  to  the  right  or  left  when  one 
wishes  to  describe  the  circle,  turn  a  corner,  or  otherwise 
deviate  from  a  straight  line. 

The  change  speed  gear  is  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  of  the  power  transmission  system,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  clutch  it  is  much  used  in  operating  and 


28  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

controlling  the  vehicle.  The  function  of  the  frame  has 
been  previously  described.  The  exhaust  pipe  is  employed 
to  convey  the  inert  gases  discharged  from  the  motor 
cylinders  to  a  device  known  as  the  muffler,  which  is  de- 
signed to  reduce  gas  pressure  by  augmenting  the  volume, 
and  thus  diminish  the  noise  made  as  it  issues  to  the  at- 
mosphere. The  driving  shaft  transmits  power  from  the 
change  speed  gearset  to  the  bevel  gearing  in  the  rear 
axle.  Jl  universal  joint  is  a  positive  connection  which 
permits  a  certain  degree  of  movement  between  two  shafts 
which  must  be  driven  at  the  same  speed.  One  or  the 
other,  or  both,  may  move  in  a  lateral  or  vertical  plane 
to  a  limited  extent  without  interrupting  the  drive  or 
cram|nng  the  moving  parts.  The  rear  construction  houses 
the  differential  and  driving  gears,  and  the  shafts  or  axles 
which  transmit  the  powder  to  the  traction  wheels. 

Brakes  are  used  to  retard,  or  stop  the  movement  of 
the  wheels,  and  are  operated  by  rods  which  transmit  the 
force  the  operator  applies  at  the  brake  pedal  or  hand 
lever  to  the  brake  bands.  Torque  members  or  radius 
rods  are  used  to  maintain  a  definite  relation  between  the 
driving  gears  in  the  axle  and  those  in  gearset,  and  to 
take  the  driving  thrusts  off  the  axle  and  the  strains  im- 
posed by  braking  and  driving  from  the  springs.  The 
principles  underlying  operation  of  each  of  the  parts  shown 
and  the  number  of  diff'erent  forms  in  which  they  may  exist, 
will  be  described  more  extensively  in  the  chapters  dealing 
with  the  various  groups. 

The  Ford  Three  Point  Suspension. — In  order  to  x^ermit 
the  sale  of  cars  of  good  quality  at  moderate  prices  it  is 
necessary  that  the  design  be  simplified  to  a  point  where 
assembly  cost  during  processes  incidental  to  manufacture 
will  be  kept  at  a  minimum.     This  elimination  of  unneces- 


T^ires 
>rt 

tlon  Cbamber 
iod 
e 

■wer  Crank  Case 
Jpper  Crank  Case 
Intake  Pipe 
Exhaust  Pipe 
^ront  Radius  Rod 
^park  Plug 
Radiator  Rod 
Hood 
Cylinder  Head  Outlet  Hose 
jjRadiator  Filler  Cap 
"  -Radiator  Filler  Flange 


Radiator 

Fan  , 

Front  Fender  (L.  H.) 

•Fan  Belt 

Jreather  Pipe 

Cylinder  Cover  (Front  End) 

Commutator 

-Radiator  Inlet  Hose 

Front  Wheel 

Starting  Crank 

•Steering  Ball  ConnectiEg  Rod 

-Front  Spring 

•Steering  Spindle  Connecting  Hod 

Front  Axle 


■Tire  Valve 


drant 


It 


id  Body  PurUi. 


Ford  Chamis  Details  29 

sary  parts  and  the  ondoavor  to  simplify  the  assembly  in 
order  to  reduce  manufacturing  exi)ense  really  acts  in  favor 
of  the  purchaser  because  it  is  easier  to  maintain,  operate 
aud  re})air  a  simple  car  than  one  having  a  greater  num- 
ber of  parts  and  more  complicated  mechanism.  In  the 
design  of  the  Ford  chassis  the  main  points  attained  have 
been  simplicity  and  lightness  without  sacrifice  of  strength 
or  endurance.  The  Ford  car  may  be  said  to  consist  of  four 
really  essential  groups,  each  of  which  is  supported  or 
joined  to  the  other  members  by  a  three  point  suspension 
system.  These  component  parts  are  the  front  axle  group, 
the  power  plant  assembly,  the  rear  axle  group  and  the 
frame. 

The  method  of  supporting  the  power  plant  by  three 
points  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  5,  as  is  also  the  system 
of  attaching  the  rear  axle  to  the  frame.  A  direct  front 
view  of  the  chassis  at  Fig.  6  shows  the  front  axle  con- 
struction and  the  method  of  supporting  the  front  end  of 
the  frame.  A  direct  rear  view  of  the  stripped  chassis 
shown  at  Fig.  7  outlines  the  method  of  supporting  the 
frame  by  a  single  cross  spring  of  peculiar  form  and  taken 
in  conjunction  with  the  plan  view  at  Fig.  5,  shows  clearly 
the  method  of  installing  the  rear  axle  to  obtain  a  three 
point  suspension  of  this  member  as  well.  There  is  a 
sound  engineering  reason  for  the  three  point  system 
which  is  now  widely  followed  in  manv  automobiles.  In 
the  first  automobiles,  and  in  fact  in  many  of  the  cars 
built  to-day,  the  four  point  suspension  system  is  followed 
in  supporting  the  power  plant  to  the  frame.  AVith  the 
four  point  construction  the  power  plant  is  provided  with 
four  supporting  arms  usually  cast  integrally  with  the 
engine  base,  two  of  these  being  on  each  side  of  the  crank 
case.     They  are  usually  of  such  length  that  they  can  be 


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Three  Point  Suspension  31 

bolted  to  the  frame  side  member  or  rest  on  suitable  sup- 
|)ortiiig  brackets  riveted  to  the  frame  side  or  carried  by 
the  sub-frame.  This  makes  a  very  rigid  construction 
■when  the  bolts  are  tightened  down  and  the  engine  bed 
firmly  secured  to  the  frame.  AVhile  this  method  of  sup- 
port is  very  strong,  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  resisting 
any  tendency  of  the  frame  twisting  when  the  car  is  op- 
erated on  unfavorable  highway  surfaces  or  when  some 
one  of  the  wheels  passes  over  an  obstruction  or  drops  into 
a  hollow  in  the  road.  These  twisting  strains  stress  the 
crank  case  arms  and  very  often  will  break  them  otf. 

It  was  to  eliminate  this  that  the  three  point  suspen- 
sion was  invented.  The  four  point  suspension  is  found 
in  most  cases  in  cars  where  the  engine  is  a  separate  mem- 
ber from  the  change  speed  gearing.  ^ATiere  the  change 
speed  mechanism  is  incorporated  as  a  portion  of  the  power 
plant,  as  is  true  of  the  Ford  construction,  it  is  possible 
to  suspend  the  engine  on  three  points,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
5.  The  first  point  is  at  the  front  end  of  the  motor  and 
consists  of  a  turned  cylindrical  bearing  resting  in  a  trun- 
nion block  carried  by  the  front  cross  member.  The  second 
and  third  points  are  provided  by  supporting  brackets  or 
arms  of  pressed  steel  which  are  securely  riveted  and 
brazed  to  each  side  of  the  flywheel  housing.  These  arms 
rest  upon  the  frame  side  member  and  are  rigidly  secured 
to  the  frame  rail  by  bolts  and  lock  nuts.  Wooden  blocks 
are  placed  between  the  frame  side  channels  and  one  bolt 
passes  through  the  wood  block  horizontally,  while  another 
passes  through  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  frame  side 
member  vertically. 

There  is  some  difference  in  construction  between  the 
two  points  of  sui)i)ort  attached  to  the  flywheel  housing 
and  the  single  or  first  point  of  support  at  the  front  end 


c3 

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FleiVibiUti/  of  Ford  liunning  Gear  33 

of  the  engine.  AVliile  this  holds  the  motor  firmly  in 
place,  it  permits  a  certain  rocking-  action  or  movement  of 
either  front  corner  of  the  frame  without  likewise  affecting 
the  i)ower  plant.  The  front  end  bearing  rests  in  a  trun- 
nion box  made  with  a  cap  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
one  of  the  main  crank  shaft  bearings  of  the  engine.  This 
is  made  in  two  sections,  the  lower  or  bed  section  being 
bolted  to  the  front  cross  member  of  the  frame,  while  the 
upper  half,  which  is  removable  when  it  is  desired  to  take 
out  the  power  plant,  is  called  the  crank  case  front  bearing 
cap,  and  is  bolted  to  the  lower  member.  By  having  a 
trunnion  joint  the  twist  imparted  to  the  frame  by  inequal- 
ities of  the  road  surface  are  not  conveyed  to  the  crank 
case  as  with  a  four  i)oint  extension.  For  example,  if  the 
right  wheel  is  raised  six  inches  and  the  left  wheel  drops 
to  the  same  amount,  there  will  be  a  difference  in  level  of 
one  foot  between  them.  This  condition  often  obtains  when 
driving  a  car  on  rutty  roads,  and  in  this  case  the  front 
cross  member  of  the  frame  moves  on  the  crank  case  bear- 
ing, but  does  not  twist  the  motor  to  any  extent  from  its 
normal  horizontal  position. 

The  front  axle  is  also  supported  at  three  points,  two 
of  these,  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  6,  being  to  the  front 
spring  by  means  of  shackle  links  attached  to  suitable 
forged  hanger  members  bolted  to  the  axle.  This  makes 
two  points  of  support  for  the  front  spring.  As  the  cross 
spring  is  not  of  such  construction  that  it  will  push  the 
front  axle  as  do  the  semi-elliptic  springs  used  in  cars  of 
conventional  design  which  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
frame  running  parallel  to  the  frame  side  member,  and 
having  the  axle  fastened  at  their  centers ;  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  a  radius  or  push  rod  construction  which  is  in 
the  form  of  a  V-shaped  member  of  steel  tubing  terminat- 


r^T        First  Point 


Front  Cross  Member 


Differential 
Housing 

Rear  Axle 
Housing 


Third  Point 


Frame  Side  Member 


Motor 

Second  Point 

Magneto  and 
Flywheel  Case' 

Transmission 
Case  Cover 


Flexible  Universal 
Joint  Enclosed  in 
Ball  Housing 


)Body  Supports 


Rear  Radius  Rods 

—  Pinion  Drive 
Shaft  Housing 


Wheel  Drive 
Shaft 


Spring  Clips 


Spring 


Fig.  5.— Plan  View  of  Ford  Frame  with  Power  Plant  and  Rear  Axle  in 
Place  Showing  Three  Point  Suspension  Principle  Utilized  in  This 
Design. 

34 


Ford  liadius  Hod  Construction  35 

ing  in  a  ball  at  its  apex  and  attached  to  the  front  spring- 
supporting  members  at  its  ends.  This  triangular  radius 
member  serves  to  take  the  push  of  the  chassis  and  move 
the  axle  forward  as  the  car  is  driven  in  that  direction. 
The  ball  rests  in  a  socket  member  attached  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  flywheel  casing  of  the  engine  as  clearly  shoAvn 
at  Fig.  3.  It  will  be  apparent  that  this  method  of  sup- 
port permits  the  front  axle  to  move  u]i  or  down  or  for  one 
end  to  be  higher  than  the  other  without  tending  to  twist 
the  frame  as  much  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  usual  system 
of  semi-elliptic  front  springs  was  used.  A  certain  amount 
of  twisting  is  unavoidable  so  the  front  axle  three  point 
suspension  in  connection  with  that  of  the  motor  insures 
that  no  strains  will  come  on  the  crank  case  because  of  this 
varying  frame  distortion. 

The  rear  axle  assembly  which  also  includes  the  driving 
shaft  and  its  supporting  housing  is  also  fastened  to  the 
frame  by  three  points.  Two  of  these  are  at  the  axle 
where  the  single  rear  spring  membet  is  shackled  to  drop- 
forged  steel  hangers  secured  to  brake  shoe  retaining  plates 
while  the  third  point  of  support  is  at  a  ball  joint  member 
attached  to  the  rear  of  the  transmission  case.  This  ])all 
joint  serves  to  enclose  the  universal  joint  and  performs 
the  same  function  for  the  rear  end  of  the  car  that  the  ball 
joint  on  the  front  end  of  the  fl^^wheel  case  performs  for 
the  front  end  of  the  car.  The  rear  radius  rod  system  is 
also  triangular  in  shape,  the  rod  members  extending  from 
the  brake  carrying  castings  on  the  ends  of  the  axles  to  the 
flange  fitting  just  back  of  the  casting  forming  the  ball 
part  of  the  joint  at  the  front  end  of  the  pinion  drive  shaft 
housing.  This  construction  is  clearly  outlined  in  sectional 
view  of  the  complete  car  shown  on  folding  plate  Fig.  2, 
and  also  in  the  plan  view,  Fig.  5.    It  will  be  apparent  that 


36 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


this  three  point  support  of  the  front  axle,  the  power 
plant  and  the  rear  axle  makes  for  a  construction  of  great 
flexibility  which  combines  the  very  desirable  element  of 
strength  and  endurance  without  the  undesirable  one  of 
excessive  weight.    The  lightness  and  ability  of  the  frame 


LAMP  BRACHET 


ENGINE  SPEED  CONTROL 
LEVERS 

STEERING  COLUMN 
DASH 


RADIATOR 

LAMP  BRACKET 


■FENDER  IRON 


Fig.  6. — ^Front  View  of  Ford  Chassis  Showing  Front  Axle  and  Spring 

Suspension. 

and  chassis  mechanism  to  endure  under  the  twists  and 
strains  incidental  to  rough  road  work  has  made  the  Ford 
car  a  practical  conveyance  for  unfavorable,  as  well  as  fav- 
orable, road  conditions,  and  enhances  the  comfort  of  the 
occupants  under  all  conditions.    As  an  assembling  propo- 


Frame  AssemhJij  Details  M 

i 

sition  the  three  point  suspension  system  is  one  tliat  lends- 
itself  readily  to  quantity  production,  and  if  it  is  easily 
put  together  it  is  equally  true  that  taking  it  apart  will 
offer  no  difficulty.  For  example,  if  it  is  desired  to  remove- 
the  rear  axle  or  the  front  axle  from  the  Ford  chassis  the 
first  step  is  to  undo  the  ball  and  socket  joint  at  the  end 
of  the  radius  rod  and  to  remove  one  half  of  each  spring: 
shackle  in  the  case  of  the  front  axle,  this  setting  it  entirely 
free  and  permitting  its  easy  withdrawal.  In  addition  to 
undoing  the  front  ball  housing  at  the  end  of  the  pinion 
drive  shaft  housing  of  the  rear  axle  and  the  spring  shackle 
member  it  is  also  necessary  to  uncouple  the  brake  rods 
operating  the  rear  wheel  brakes  at  the  point  where  they 
attach  to  the  cross  shaft  actuated  by  the  hand  lever 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

Frame  Assembly  Details. — The  frame  of  the  Ford  car 
is  a  very  simple  member,  and  owing  to  the  three  point 
system  of  attachment  of  components  is  made  light  and 
flexible  to  a  degree.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  long 
straight  side  members  and  front  and  rear  cross  members. 
The  material  used  for  the  side  members  is  a  channel  sec- 
tion pressed  steel,  the  frame  side  rails  being  about  100 
inches  long.  The  cross  members  are  not  straight,  as  is 
the  case  of  the  side  members,  but  are  bent  as  indicated 
in  Figs.  6  and  7.  The  front  cross  member  is  bent  down 
to  offer  a  support  for  the  simple  semi-elliptic  cross  spring 
while  the  rear  member  has  an  upward  bend  to  fit  the  arch 
of  the  rear  spring.  The  corners  of  the  frame  are  securely 
braced  by  gusset  plates  or  re-enforcing  brackets,  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  5.  These  are  securely  riveted  to  the  frame 
side  and  cross  members,  the  cross  members  also  being 
attached  to  the  side  rails  by  hot  riveting.  Body  supporting 
brackets  are  attached  to  the  side  rails  to  which  the  body 


38 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


portion  is  fastened  by  means  of  bolts.  These  are  held 
in  place  by  riveting,  as  are  the  running  board  supporting 
irons. 

Spring  Construction. — The  first  point  that  strikes  the 
person  examining  the  Ford  ear  oarefully  for  the  first 


STEER/NG   WHEEL 
IGNITION  COIL 


FUEL  TANK 


SPRING  CLIP 
REAR  SPRING 


Fig.  7. — Rear  View  of  Ford  Model  T  Chassis  Depicting  Method  of  At- 
taching Rear  Construction  to  Frame. 

time,  and  one  which  serves  as  a  ready  means  of  identifi- 
cation, is  the  method  of  springing  employed  which  is  un- 
conventional, though  exceedingly  practical.  The  springs 
of  practically  all  automobiles  are  of  the  laminated  type 
and  are  a  built-up  construction  composed  of  long,  flat  sec- 


Tlic  Chasds  Supporting  Springs  39 

tions  of  tempered  high  carbon  or  alloy  steel  that  are  called 
*' leaves."  The  material  used  in  the  Ford  springs  is 
vanadium  steel,  an  alloy  which  is  said  to  possess  greater 
endurance  to  continual  deflection  and  rebound  than  ordi- 
nary high  carbon  steel.  The  Ford  front  spring  is  a  semi- 
elliptic  member,  which  term  is  applied  to  the  spring  ac- 
cording to  the  arc  of  an  ellipse  in  which  they  are  formed. 
A  full  elliptic  spring  would  be  one  composed  of  two  semi- 
elliptic  members  placed  in  such  relation  that  they  would 
produce  a  flattened  circle  or  ellipse.  A  spring  which  is 
composed  of  one-half  of  a  full  elliptic  member  is  called 
a  semi-elliptic  spring. 

In  common  practice  the  center  portion  of  the  semi- 
elliptic  spring  rests  on  the  axle  of  the  car,  the  front  end 
or  eye  being  secured  to  the  spring  horn  by  a  bolt  while 
the  rear  end  is  attached  to  the  frame  by  a  shackle  or 
hinge  joint  which  is  necessary  to  provide  for  the  length- 
ening of  the  spring  as  it  deflects  under  load,  the  tendency? 
of  the  load  being  to  straighten  out  the  arch.  In  the  Ford 
car  the  eyes  of  the  front  spring  are  shackled  to  the  hang- 
ers on  the  front  axle  while  the  center  portion  is  securely 
held  inside  of  the  channel  section  of  the  front  frame  cross 
member  by  means  of  U-shaped  spring  clips.  This  means 
that  the  semi-elliptic  spring  is  inverted  from  the  position 
it  usually  occupies  on  other  cars.  The  front  springs  con- 
sist of  seven  leaves  or  laminations  of  graduated  length, 
the  longest  being  at  the  bottom  and  having  eye  members 
formed  at  each  end,  the  shortest  leaf  being  placed  at  the 
top.  The  seven  leaves  are  held  together  by  a  tie  bolt 
passing  through  their  centers,  which  keeps  the  spring  in 
shape  whenever  it  is  desired  to  unloosen  the  spring  clijis 
to  remove  it  from  the  frame.  Kebound  clips  are  also 
provided  to  keep  the  spring  leaves  from  spreading  apart 


^0  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

under  violent  upward  throw  of  the  chassis  frame.  In 
order  not  to  restrict  free  movement  of  the  spring  both 
front  and  rear  shackles  are  provided  with  oil  cups  so  that 
the  shackle  bolts  may  be  kept  properh^  lubricated  at  all 
times.  It  will  be  apparent,  however,  that  spring  move- 
ment must  necessarily  be  limited,  and  that  the  more  resil- 
ient a  spring  is  the  greater  the  degree  of  movement. 
The  springs  are  constantly  in  action  when  the  vehicle  is 
used,  and  practically  all  of  the  comfort  of  the  occupants 
is  dependent  upon  them. 

The  rear  spring  shown  at  Fig.  7  is  also  a  cross  mem- 
ber, but  it  is  not  of  the  same  semi-elliptic  form  the  front 
spring  is.  It  has  a  decided  arch  at  its  center,  designed 
to  conform  to  the  arched  portion  of  the  rear  cross  mem- 
ber, to  which  the  center  of  the  rear  spring  is  secured  by 
substantial  spring  clips.  The  spring  perches  or  hangers 
are  drop  forgings  similar  in  form  to  the  front  members, 
and  have  a  boss  pierced  with  a  hole  through  which  the 
bolt  of  the  spring  hanger  or  shackle  member  passes.  The 
Ford  rear  spring  perches  are  securely  held  in  the  brake 
retaining  plate  castings  at  the  ends  of  the  axle. 

The  Ford  Body. — Practically  the  only  part  of  an  auto- 
mobile that  resembles  in  any  way  the  horse-drawn  vehi- 
cles they  supercede  is  the  body  or  carriage  w^ork  portion 
employed  for  conveying  the  passengers.  The  body  of  the 
Ford  car  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  2.  The  sectional  view 
gives  an  idea  of  the  tufted  upholstery  and  the  method 
of  constructing  the  seat  cushions.  The  body  is  usually 
composed  of  a  framework  of  wood,  to  which  formed  steel 
sheets  are  fastened,  these  being  termed  panels.  By  the 
development  of  large  stamping  presses  it  is  possible  to 
form  the  entire  panel  of  a  rear  seat  member,  for  instance, 
out  of  a  single  sheet  of  steel  so  that  practically  no  fitting 


The  Ford  Body  Construction  41 

is  necessarj',  except  to  fasten  it  securely  to  the  frame 
by  means  of  small  screws  or  nails.  The  wooden  frame 
members  serve  as  supports  for  the  floor  boards,  and  also 
for  the  seat  cushions.  The  doors  by  which  the  front  or 
rear  compartments  are  reached  are  light  wooden  frame- 
work covered  with  sheet  metal  and  secured  to  the  main 
body  frame  by  simple  hinges.  The  upholstering  of  the 
Ford  car  is  a  fabric  made  in  imitation  of  leather,  which 
is  tufted  and  filled  with  curled  hair  in  the  fashion  of  regu- 
lar carriage  upholstery. 

The  seat  cushions  are  provided  with  a  large  number 
of  coiled  springs  which  are  intended  to  support  the  passen- 
ger's  weight  and  to  supplement  the  action  of  the  harsher- 
acting,  stiffer  chassis-supporting  springs.  These  spiral 
springs  absorb  many  of  the  minor  shocks  which  would 
interfere  with  the  comfort  of  the  passengers  if  no  springs 
were  provided.  It  will  be  apparent  that  the  passenger 
has  three  independent  resilient  supporting  members  be- 
tween his  body  and  the  road.  The  pneumatic  tires  on  the 
wheels  form  the  primary  shock-absorbing  members,  while 
the  chassis  springs  are  the  secondary  shock-absorbing 
members.  The  seat  cushion  springs  and  the  curled  hair 
padding  are  the  final  check  against  road  vibration.  In 
the  Ford  body  the  front  floor  boards  are  entirely  remov- 
able, if  desired,  in  order  to  gain  access  to  the  change  speed 
gearing  and  the  universal  joint  casing  which  are  imme- 
diately under  them.  When  the  front  seat  cushion  is  lifted 
out,  a  hinged  door  permits  of  reaching  the  gasoline  tank 
for  filling.  Lifting  the  rear  cushion  discloses  another 
hinged  door  which  provides  communication  to  a  com- 
partment extending  the  full  width  of  the  rear  seat  suit- 
able for  carrying  tools,  supplies  and  various  articles  of 
equipment.     The  windshield  and  top  are  not  shown  in 


u 

o 


eS 


42 


The  Ford  Potccr  Plant  43 

illustration,  though  these  are  fastened  to  the  body  mem- 
ber. The  sills  of  the  body  are  provided  with  brackets  of 
pressed  steel,  which  are  securely  bolted  to  the  wood  and 
which  rest  on  the  body  supporting  brackets  riveted  to  the 
car  frame.  The  front  end  of  the  body  is  attached  to  the 
dashboard  by  angle  irons.  "\Mien  it  is  desired  to  give 
the  chassis  a  thorough  overhauling  it  is  not  difficult  to 
remove  the  body  by  loosening  all  of  the  body-retaining 
bolts,  also  the  members  holding  the  body  to  the  dash- 
board assembly,  which  remains  on  the  frame  after  the 
body  is  taken  off. 

The  Ford  Power  Plant. — The  motive  jiower  of  the  Ford 
car  consist  of  what  is  known  as  a  "unit  power  plant,"  in- 
corporating the  engine  or  power-producing  member  and 
the  change  speed  gearing  and  clutch  or  power  transmit- 
ting member.  A  side  view  of  the  engine  is  shown  at 
Fig.  8,  this  showing  clearly  the  parts  that  are  readily 
discernible  from  the  outside.  The  engine  is  a  four-cylin- 
der type,  having  the  cylinders  cast  in  one  block  which  is 
integral  with  the  top  half  of  the  engine  crank  case.  As 
all  the  valves  are  on  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  it  is  known 
as  an  *'L  block"  construction.  The  bore  of  the  cylinder 
is  S%'',  the  stroke  of  the  piston  is  4''.  The  engine  is 
capable  of  attaining  high  rotative  speed  and  will  develop 
well  over  20  h.  p. 

The  advantage  of  including  the  change  speed  gearing 
and  clutch  in  a  unit  with  the  engine  is  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  loss  of  alignment  of  these  members  due  to 
frame  distortion  as  is  possible  when  the  power-producing 
and  transmission  elements  are  separate  units,  each  having 
its  independent  means  of  support.  The  parts  of  the 
Ford  power  plant  assembly  are  lined  up  properly  when 
the  engine  is  built,  and  there  is  no  possibility  of  loss  of 


44  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

this  alignment  until  the  engine  has  been  in  service  a  long 
enough  time  so  that  the  bearings  wear  and  permit  the 
parts  to  get  out  of  line.  Long  before  this  lack  of  align- 
ment becomes  serious  the  motorist  will  be  warned  that 
the  bearings  require  refitting  by  noisy  action  of  the  power 
plant  or  change  speed  gearing. 

The  power  plant,  as  shown,  while  complete  in  itself 
would  not  be  operative  unless  a  number  of  auxiliary  mech- 
anisms and  devices  are  provided.  In*  order  to  insure  en- 
gine action  it  is  necessary  to  supply  the  cylinders  with 
a  combustible  gas,  which  is  done  by  the  carburetion  sys- 
tem. The  gas  must  be  exploded  in  the  cylinder  to  produce 
power,  which  is  the  function  of  the  ignition  group.  In 
order  to  keep  the  engine  at  the  proper  working  tempera- 
ture and  reduce  internal  friction,  lubrication  means  must 
be  provided,  while  a  water-cooling  system  prevents  the 
cylinders  and  combustion  head  from  overheating.  The 
basic  principles  of  engine  operation,  also  those  under- 
lying the  action  of  the  auxiliary  groups,  will  be  fully  de- 
scribed in  proper  sequence.  ' 


CHAPTEE   II 

THE  ENGINE  AND  AUXILIARY  GROUPS 

How  the  En^ne  Works — Engine  Parts  and  Their  Functions — The  Fuel 
Supply  System — Principles  of  Carburetion  Outlined — Utility  of  Gaso- 
line Strainer — What  the  Carburetor  Should  Do — The  Ford  Float 
Feed  Carburetor — The  Ford  Ignition  System — Induction  Coil  System 
Action  Explained — Why  a  Magneto  Is  Used  on  the  Ford — Wiring 
Dry  Cell  Batteries — Master  Vibrator  Systems — Why  Cooling  Systems 
Are  Necessary — Cooling  Systems  Generally  Used — Ford  Water  Cir- 
culation Methods — Theory  of  Lubrication — Derivation  of  Lubricants 
— How  Ford  Power  Plant  is  Lubricated — The  Ford  Muffler. 

The  jDrinciples  of  action  of  all  internal  combustion  en- 
gines are  easily  understood  if  one  compares  the  effect 
produced  by  the  explosion  of  the  gas  in  the  interior  of 
the  engine  with  the  known  effect  obtained  by  firing  any 
other  explosive,  such  as  gunpowder.  Gasoline  when 
mixed  with  air  and  compressed  is  highly  explosive,  and 
can  be  easily  ignited  by  an  electric  spark.  An  explosion 
results  from  violent  expansion  which  occurs  where  con- 
fined gases  are  fired.  Combustion  may  exist  in  a  number 
of  different  states,  slow  combustion,  as  the  rotting  of 
wood  or  rusting  of  iron;  fast  combustion,  such  as  the 
burning  of  wood,  coal  or  other  fuels,  and  instantaneous 
combustion,  which  is  that  produced  by  igniting  gunpowder 
or  other  explosives. 

The  manner  in  which  a  compressed  gas  can  be  made 
to  give  power  may  be  easily  understood  by  using  as  aji 
illustration  the  difference  between  the  noise  of  a  fire- 
cracker that  is  in  good  condition  and  the  ''fizz"  which 
results  when  an  unexploded  fire  cracker  is  cracked  open 

45 


46  The  Ford  Model  T  Ca 


r 


by  an  economical  child  and  the  gunpowder  thus  exposed 
is  ignited.  The  reason  we  have  noise  when  the  fire  cracker 
explodes  is  because  the  rapid  combustion  of  the  gunpow- 
der in  the  confined  spaces  of  the  firecracker  interior 
bursts  the  containing  walls  and  produces  a  loud  noise. 
In  other  words,  the  gunpowder  has  been  compacted  or 
compressed  to  a  degree  before  ignition.  AYhen  the  powder 
is  lighted  in  the  firecracker  that  has  been  broken  open, 
there  is  no  noise  to  speak  of  because  there  is  nothing 
to  restrain  the  gases  produced  by  burning  the  powder. 

Another  illustration  that  simplifies  the  method  of  op- 
eration of  a  gas  engine  is  to  compare  it  with  a  muzzle- 
loading  gun  or  cannon.  After  the  charge  of  gunpowder 
is  introduced  at  the  open  end  of  the  barrel  it  is  necessary 
to  ram  this  tightly  in  place  in  order  to  compact  it  before 
the  shot  is  introduced.  After  the  fuse  is  lighted  or  firing- 
pin  depressed  the  powder  explodes  with  great  energy  and 
as  the  parts  of  the  gun  barrel  surrounding  the  combus- 
tion chamber  are  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  force 
of  the  explosion,  the  movable  member  or  shot  is  violently 
ejected  from  the  gun  barrel.  If  the  same  amount  of  gun- 
powder used  to  charge  the  gun  was  ])]aced  on  a  piece 
of  paper  and  set  afire,  the  only  result  would  be  a  sudden 
flash  or  flame  thai  would  not  be  accompanied  by  an  explo- 
sion, nor  would  it  have  any  appreciable  force  because 
the  gases  are  not  confined. 

In  any  internal  combustion  engine  the  gas  charge  is 
first  drawn  into  a  cylinder,  which  may  be  compared  with 
the  barrel  of  a  gun  by  the  suction  effect  of  a  downwardly 
moving  piston  member,  and  when  the  piston  has  reached 
the  limit  of  its  travel  in  one  direction  its  motion  is  re- 
versed and  it  moves  back  and  starts  to  compress  the  gas 
previously  inspired.    As  soon  as  the  gas  is  properly  com 


Four  Cycle  Engine  Action  47 

pressed,  wliicli  means  that  its  volume  lias  been  reduced 
and  its  pressure  increased,  an  electric  spark  takes  i)lace 
in  the  interior  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  the  result- 
ing- explosion  of  tlie  gas  sends  the  piston  violently  down- 
ward, and  this  motion,  through  the  medium  of  a  connect- 
ing rod,  imparts  a  rotary  movement  to  a  crank  member. 

The  difference  between  an  internal  combustion  engine 
and  an  external  combustion  engine  is  easily  understood 
if  one  knows  that  the  steam  engine  operates  on  the  latter 
principle.  With  the  steam  engine,  power  is  derived  by 
admitting  steam  to  the  cylinder,  which  is  obtained  from  a 
separate  boiler  member.  This  is  produced  by  the  evap- 
oration of  water  by  a  fire  under  the  boiler.  It  is  evident 
that  the  powder  is  really  obtained  by  the  combustion  of 
fuel,  the  steam  being  only  a  flexible  medium  that  has 
transformed  the  heat  of  the  fire  into  the  power.  The 
steam  bears  against  a  movable  piston  member  in  the 
steam  engine  cylinder,  and  the  movement  of  the  piston 
is  transformed  into  mechanical  energy  at  the  crank  shaft 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  gas  engine.  Wherever  the 
fuel  is  burnt  directly  in  the  cylinder  instead  of  under 
another  part  of  the  power  plant  so  that  its  heat  may  be 
expended  directly  to  produce  piston  movement  with  mini- 
mum power  loss,  the  engine  is  called  an  "internal  com- 
bustion engine." 

How  All  Automobile  Engines  Work. — It  is  evident  that 
burning  powder  in  the  air  will  produce  a  certain  amount  of 
energy,  but  as  the  explosion  takes  place  in  the  open  there 
will  be  nothing  to  restrain  the  pressure,  and  just  as  soon 
as  the  powder  is  lighted,  any  energy  evolved  by  the  com- 
bustion is  dissipated  into  the  atmosphere  instead  of  the 
force  being  directed  against  a  yielding  member  such  as 
a  shot.     This  bullet  is  forced  out  of  the  gun  barrel,  not 


48  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

only  by  tne  gas  pressure  which  results  as  soon  as  the 
powder  is  exploded,  but  also  by  the  expansion  of  the  gases 
generated  by  combustion  which  tends  to  accelerate  its 
motion  toward  the  open  end  of  the  barrel.  As  the  shot 
moves  toward  the  end  and  the  gas  occupies  more  space 
its  pressure  becomes  less,  and  when  the  ball  leaves  the 
mouth  of  the  gun  there  is  very  little  power  remaining  in 
the  moving  gas.  There  is  sufficient  pressure,  however, 
so  that  the  gas  rushes  out  of  the  interior  and  the  barrel 
is  thus  cleared  of  inert  products  which  have  no  more 
useful  force.  The  action  of  a  modern  repeating  rifle  is 
somewhat  different  than  that  of  a  muzzle-loader,  because 
the  powder  is  already  compressed  in  metal  shells  which 
are  introduced  at  the  breech  of  the  gun  instead  of  at  the 
muzzle.  A  number  of  shells  are  carried  in  a  magazine, 
and  after  one  of  these  explodes  the  recoil  due  to  the 
explosion  of  the  gas  supplies  another  charged  shell  to  the 
breech  and  the  operation  of  firing  the  gun  may  be  re- 
peated as  long  as  the  supply  of  ammunition  in  the  maga- 
zine lasts. 

The  modern  four-cycle  gasoline  engine  follows  the 
action  of  both  the  old  type  muzzle-loader  and  the  more 
modern  form  in  which  the  shell  is  introduced  at  the 
breech.  Referring  to  sketches  at  Fig.  9,  we  can  compare 
the  action  of  a  simple  four-stroke  engine  with  that  of  a 
gTin.  The  principal  elements  of  a  gas  engine  shown  are 
not  difficult  to  identify,  and  their  functions  are  easily 
defined.  In  place  of  the  barrel  of  the  gun  one  has  a 
smoothly  machined  cylinder  in  which  a  movable  bari'el- 
shaped  element  fitting  the  bore  closely  may  be  likened 
to  a  bullet  or  shot.  It  differs  in  an  important  respect, 
however,  as  while  the  shot  is  discharged  from  the  mouth 
of  the  gun  the  piston  member  sliding  inside  of  the  cylinder 


Fig.    9.-Simple    Diagrams    Showing    the   Various    Cycles    of    Operation 
^  Necessar?  to  Obtain  an  Explosion  in  the  Four  Stroke  Gasolme  En- 
gine Cylinder.     A— Suction.     B— Compression.     C— Expansion.     D 

Exhaust. 

49 


50  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

cannot  leave  it,  as  its  movements  back  and  forth  from 
the  open  to  the  closed  end,  and  back  again,  are  limited 
by  simple  mechanical  connection  or  linkage  which  com- 
prises a  crank  and  connecting  rod.  It  is  by  this  means 
that  the  reciprocating  movement  of  the  piston  is  trans- 
formed into  a  rotary  motion  of  the  crank  shaft.  The 
"flywheel  is  a  heavy  member  attached  to  the  crank  shaft 
which  has  energy  stored  in  its  rim  as  it  revolves,  and 
the  momentum  of  this  revolving  mass  tends  to  equalize 
the  intermittent  pushes  on  the  piston  head  produced  by 
the  succeeding  explosions  of  gasoline  vapor  in  the  cylin- 
der. If  any  explosive  is  placed  in  the  chamber  formed 
between  the  piston  and  closed  end  of  the  cylinder  and 
exploded,  the  piston  would  be  the  only  part  that  would 
yield  to  the  pressure  which  would  lu'oduce  a  downward 
movement.  As  the  piston  is  forced  down,  the  crank  shaft 
is  turned  by  the  connecting  rod.  This  part  is  hinged  at 
both  ends,  so  it  is  free  to  oscillate  as  the  crank  turns, 
and  thus  the  piston  may  slide  back  and  forth,  while  the 
crank  shaft  is  rotating  or  describing  a  curvilinear  path. 

In  addition  to  the  simple  elements  described  it  is 
evident  that  a  gasoline  engine  must  have  other  parts. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  valves,  of  which 
there  are  two  to  each  cylinder.  One  closes  the  passage 
connecting  to  the  gas  supply  and  opens  during  one  stroke 
of  the  piston  in  order  to  let  the  explosive  gas  into  the 
combustion  chamber.  The  other  member,  or  exhaust 
valve,  serves  as  a  cover  for  the  opening  through  which 
the  burnt  gases  can  leave  the  cylinder  after  their  work 
is  done.  The  spark  plug  is  a  simple  device  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  percussion  cap  of  a  gun.  It  permits 
one  to  produce  an  electric  sjiark  in  the  cylinder  when 
the  piston  is  at  the  best  point  to  utilize  the  pressure  which 


How  Ford  Engine  Works  51 

obtains  when  the  compressed  gas  is  fired.  The  valves  are 
open  one  at  a  time,  the  inlet  valve  being  depressed  from 
its  seat  while  the  cylinder  is  filling  and  the  exhaust  valve 
is  opened  when  the  cylinder  is  being  cleared.  They  are 
normally  kept  seated  by  means  of  compression  springs. 
In  the  simple  motor  shown  at  Fig.  9,  the  inlet  valve  is 
operated  by  means  of  a  pivoted  rocker  arm  moved  by  a 
cam  which  turns  at  half  the  sjoeed  of  the  crank  shaft. 
The  exhaust  valve  operates  in  a  similar  manner,  as  will 
be  explained  in  proper  sequence. 

Considering  the  view  shown  at  Fig.  9,  A,  the  first 
necessary  operation  is  charging  the  cylinder  with  explo- 
sive material.  The  piston  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke  and 
it  moves  toward  the  open  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  en- 
gine works  as  a  pump  and  the  piston  draws  in  a  charge 
of  combustible  gas  through  the  open  intake  valve  which 
is  in  connection  with  the  vaporizer  or  device  which  fur- 
nishes the  gas.  The  valve  opening  is  assisted  by  a  light 
vacuum  or  suction  existing  when  the  piston  has  traveled 
down  a  certain  portion  of  its  stroke,  this  supplementing 
the  cam  action  as  the  outside  air  pressure  is  greater  than 
that  in  the  cj^linder.  The  mechanical  pressure  produced 
by  the  cam  is  greater  than  the  tension  of  the  spring,  which 
tends  to  keep  the  valve  closed  and  that  member  is  de- 
pressed from  its  seat  and  gas  drawn  in  by  the  piston.  At 
the  end  of  the  intake  stroke,  the  start  of  which  is  shown  at 
Fig.  9,  A,  and  after  the  cylinder  has  filled  with  gas,  the 
l)ressure  inside  and  outside  is  the  same,  the  cam  pressure 
is  released,  and  the  valve  spring  closes  the  intake  valve. 

As  the  exhaust  valve  spring  is  very  strong,  this  mem- 
ber has  not  been  lifted  from  its  seat  by  the  difference  in 
pressure  during  the  suction  stroke.  The  exhaust  valve 
is   opened  by  mechanical  means   solely  and   only  when 


.52  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

operated  by  the  cam  and  push-rod  mechanism.  Ther  con- 
dition in  the  cylinder  of  the  gas  engine  after  the  piston 
has  reached  the  bottom  of  its  stroke  is  very  much  the  same 
that  which  obtains  in  a  gun  of  the  muzzle-loading  type 
after  the  explosive  charge  has  been  introduced.  We  have 
learned  that  to  obtain  power  from  gunpowder  that  it  was 
necessary  to  compact  it  finnly  in  the  combustion  chamber 
of  the  gim.  The  gasoline  gas  which  has  been  taken  into 
the  engine  cylinder  must  also  be  compressed  before  it  is 
ignited  in  order  to  obtain  power.  It  is  compacted  into 
one-third  or  one-quarter  of  its  former  volume,  and  where- 
as its  pressure  is  about  fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch 
before  the  volume  is  reduced,  at  the  end  of  the  com- 
pression stroke  of  the  piston  the  pressure  will  be  in- 
creased to  forty-five,  sixty,  and  even  seventy-five  pounds 
per  square  inch.  At  the  end  of  this  compression  stroke, 
the  start  of  which  is  shown  at  B,  Fig.  9,  the  conditions  in 
the  engine  cylinder  are  the  same  as  those  which  prevail 
in  the  barrel  of  the  gun  after  the  powder  has  been  tightly 
rammed  in  the  closed  end  of  the  gun  barrel  and  the  wad- 
ding and  ball  forced  in  on  top  of  it.  The  explosion  of  the 
gas  by  the  electric  spark  is  shown  at  G,  while  the  begin- 
ning of  the  exhaust  stroke  is  depicted  at  D. 

With  a  one-cylinder,  four-cycle  engine  it  will  be  appar- 
ent that  we  have  one  useful  jDOwer  stroke  in  every  four 
strokes  of  the  piston.  These  four  reciprocating  move- 
ments are  transformed  into  two  complete  rotary  move- 
ments of  the  crank  shaft  to  which  the  connecting  rod  is 
fastened.  If  we  have  a  two-cylinder  engine  we  can  ob- 
tain one  explosion  for  each  revolution  of  the  fly  wheel 
or  crank  shaft  and  a  more  even  turning  effort  and  stead- 
ier power  application  will  result.  By  using  four  cylin- 
ders it  is  possible  to  have  one  delivering  power  right  after 


Hoxv  Ford  Engine  Works 


53 


its  neighbor  leaves  off  and  so  a  reasonably  constant  turn- 
ing moment  or  more  steady  power  delivery  is  possible 
than  can  be  obtained  with  either  a  one-  or  two-cylinder 
engine.  In  the  Ford  four-cylinder  engine  one  obtains 
two  explosions  for  each  revolution  of  the  flywheel.  The 
position  of  the  various  pistons  and  their  relation  to  each 
other  when  the  front  cvlinder  is  about  to  fire  is  clearly 


Explosion  Stroke  Exhaust  Str.oke 

Compression  Strol<e  Inialte  Stroke 


Both  Vaiues  dosed- 


Both  Values  Closed- 


Water, 
Jacket 


Front  End- 
Bearing 


Exhaust  Vaive 
Open 

Intake  Valve 
Open 


Connecting 
Rod 
Piston 


Center  Bearing 


Connecting  Rod 
Bearing  Cap 


-Rear  End 
Bearing 

-Crankshaft 


Fig.  10. — Diagram  Showing  the  Relation  of  the  Pistons  and  Crank  Shaft 
Throws  of  the  Ford  Four  Cylinder  Motor  when  Piston  No.  1  is  about 
to  Receive  the  Force  of  Gas  Exploded  in  the  Combustion  Chamber. 


shown  at  Fig.  10.  Pistons  Xos.  1  and  4  are  at  the  top 
of  the  stroke  as  the  crank  pins  operating  them  are  on 
the  same  plane.  Pistons  Nos.  2  and  3  are  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stroke  as  their  crank  pins  are  on  the  same  line. 
It  will  be  evident  that  the  crank  shaft  of  a  four-cylinder 
engine  must  have  four  crank  throws,  one  for  each  jDiston 
member. 


54  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

In  the  Ford  engine  the  firing  order  is  1,  2,  4,  3,  which 
means  that  the  front  cylinder  fires  first,  then  the  second 
cylinder,  then  the  fourth  cylinder,  and  lastly  the  third 
cylinder.  The  four  operations  of  the  cycle — suction,  com- 
l^ression,  explosion  and  exhaust — are  repeated  in  regular 
order  in  each  of  the  four  cylinders  according  to  the  firing 
order.  The  pistons  move  downward  during  the  explosion 
and  intake  strokes  and  they  move  upward  during  the  com- 
pression and  exhaust  strokes.  As  can  be  readily  ascer- 
tained from  Fig.  10,  when  piston  No.  1  is  at  the  top  of  its 
stroke  with  the  gas  above  it  in  the  combustion  chamber 
fully  compressed  and  ready  for  ignition,  piston  No,  2  is 
at  the  bottom  of  the  suction  stroke  and  just  at  the  be- 
ginning of  its  compression  stroke.  Both  valves  in  cyl- 
inders Nos.  1  and  2  are  closed.  When  the  piston  in  cyl- 
inder No.  3  starts  moving  up,  it  will  force  the  burnt  gas 
out  of  cylinder  No.  3,  through  the  open  exhaust  valve. 
Piston  No.  3  is  starting  on  its  exhaust  stroke  while  piston 
No.  2  is  moving  in  the  same  direction,  only  performing 
its  compression  stroke.  Piston  No.  4  is  moving  in  the 
same  direction  as  piston  No,  1,  which  is  about  to  be  forced 
down  by  the  pressure  of  the  exploded  gas,  and  as  the  inlet 
valve  is  opened  in  cylinder  No,  4  a  charge  of  gas  will  be 
drawn  in  from  the  carburetor  when  the  piston  moves 
down. 

We  have  different  conditions  in  the  various  cylinders, 
as  follows:  During  the  first  half  of  the  first  revolution 
of  the  motor  crank  shaft,  piston  No,  1  is  on  its  explosion 
stroke,  No.  2  is  compressing  the  gas,  piston  No,  3  is  push- 
ing out  burned  gas,  while  piston  No,  4  is  drawing  in  a 
fresh  charge.  During  the  second  half  of  the  first  revolu- 
tion of  the  crank  shaft,  during  which  the  x)istons  reverse 
from  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  10,  piston  No.  1  is  about 


Ford  Engine  Parts  and  Functions  55 

to  clear  the  cylinder  of  burnt  gas,  piston  No.  2  is  to  receive 
the  force  of  the  explosion,  piston  No.  3  is  to  draw  in  a 
fresh  charge,  while  piston  No.  4  is  about  to  compress  the 
gas  taken  in  on  the  ]ireceding  down  stroke.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  first  half  of  the  second  revolution  of  the 
crank  shaft  the  jiistons  are  again  in  the  positions  shown 
at  Fig.  10,  though  the  functions  they  are  i)erforming  are 
not  the  same.  Piston  No.  1  is  about  to  draw  in  a  fresh 
charge  of  gas.  Piston  No.  2  is  about  to  force  out  exhaust 
gas.  Piston  No.  3  is  about  to  compress  a  charge,  while 
piston  No.  4  is  in  position  to  be  acted  on  by  the  explosion 
that  is  to  take  place  in  cylinder  No.  4  as  soon  as  the  gas 
is  ignited.  During  the  second  half  of  the  second  revolu- 
tion, piston  No.  1  is  compressing  a  charge,  piston  No.  2 
is  sucking  in  gas,  piston  No.  3  is  being  acted  on  by  an 
explosion,  while  cylinder  No.  4,  in  which  a  charge  has 
exploded  on  the  previous  stroke  of  the  piston,  is  being 
cleared  of  burnt  gas.  It  will  be  apparent  that  by  using 
four  cylinders,  as  in  the  Ford  motor,  jiractically  steadv 
l^ower  application  is  obtained. 

Engine  Parts  and  Their  Functions. — A  part  sectional 
view  of  the  Ford  power  plant  is  i)resented  at  Fig.  11, 
w^th  practically  all  motor  parts  clearly  outlined.  The 
functions  of  the  principal  elements  have  been  previously 
described,  but  in  addition  to  these  there  are  a  number  of 
minor  parts  which  are  equally  necessary  to  secure  effi- 
cient engine  action.  For  example,  each  piston  is  pro- 
vided mth  three  packing  rings  fitting  into  grooves  ma- 
chined around  each  piston,  two  being  above  the  piston 
pin  and  one  below  that  member.  The  purpose  of  these 
packing  rings  is  to  prevent  escape  of  the  gas  past  the 
pistons  on  the  compression  or  explosion  strokes.  It  would 
not  be  possible  to  secure  a  practically  gas  tight  joint 


.A 
m 

a 
a 

S3 


m 


Ford  Engine  Parts  and  Functions  57 

without  these  rings  because  the  piston  could  not  be  fitted 
so  tightly  to  the  cylinder  that  it  would  retain  the  gas. 
There  would  be  considerable  friction  between  the  piston 
and  cylinder  walls,  and  in  addition  much  power  would 
be  consumed  because  of  this  retarding  influence  which 
would  increase  as  the  piston  became  heated  and  expanded. 
By  using  packing  rings,  it  is  possible  to  make  the  piston 
enough  smaller  than  the  cylinder  bore  so  that  even  when 
heated  and  expanded  to  its  limit  it  will  not  seize  or  bind 
in  the  cylinder  as  long  as  lubrication  is  properly  main- 
tained. The  piston  rings  are  sufficiently  elastic  owing  to 
a  slotted  opening  in  each  ring  to  allow  springing  them 
over  the  piston  when  it  is  necessary  to  remove  them 
for  cleaning  or  examination.  Another  function  of  the  pis- 
ton ring  is  to  take  the  wear  caused  to  the  rapid  sliding 
movement  of  the  piston.  It  is  easier  to  renew  relatively 
cheap  piston  rings  instead  of  supplying  new  piston  cast- 
ings to  compensate  for  wear  after  the  engine  has  been 
in  use  for  a  time. 

The  connecting  rods  are  attached  to  the  pistons  by 
the  medium  of  a  piston  pin  which  is  clamped  in  an  eye 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  connecting  rod  and  which  oscil- 
lates in  bronze  bushings  forced  into  the  piston  bosses. 
The  connecting  rod  is  a  vanadium  steel  drop  forging  pro- 
vided with  a  capped  babbit  bearing  at  its  lower  end,  where 
it  encircles  the  crank  jnn  of  the  crank  shaft.  The  cylin- 
der unit  consists  of  two  members,  an  iron  cylinder  block 
which  is  cast  integral  with  the  upper  half  of  the  crank 
case  and  the  cast  iron  cylinder  head  which  is  a  removable 
member  that  can  be  taken  off  to  provide  easy  access  to  the 
interior  of  the  combustion  chamber  when  carbon  deposits 
must  be  cleaned  out  or  the  valves  ground.  The  retaining 
bolts  holding  the  cylinder  head  in  place  are  clearly  sho\^Ti 


SUPPORT- 


SUPPORT 


SPARKPLUGS    CYLINDER  HEAD 

RETAINING  BOLTS 


COMBUSTION  CHAMBERS 


CYLINDER 
HEAD 


6EARCASE 
COVER 


VALVES 


EXHAUST  PIPE 
PISTONS 


rig.  12. — Depicting  the  Distinctive  Design  of  the  Ford  Motor  which 
Employs  a  Removable  Cylinder  Head  to  Permit  Ready  Access  to  the 
Combustion  Chambers,  Valves  and  Piston  Parts. 

5S 


Ford  Valve  Action  59 

at  the  top  of  Fig.  12,  while  the  appearance  of  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder  block  when  the  cylinder  head  is  removed 
is  outlined  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  illustration.  Two 
valves  are  provided  for  each  cylinder,  these  being  side 
by  side,  all  on  the  same  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  one 
that  admits  the  fresh  charge  from  the  carburetor  is  called 
the  ''intake,"  whereas  the  one  through  which  the  ex- 
ploded gas  is  driven  out  and  which  opens  the  passage 
between  the  combustion  chamber  and  the  exhaust  mani- 
fold is  called  the  "exhaust"  valve. 

The  sectional  view  of  the  cylinder  at  Fig.  13,  C,  shows 
verv  clearlv  the  manner  in  which  the  valve  is  installed, 
no  valve  seating  spring  being  shown  in  order  to  simplify 
the  illustration.  Both  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  kept 
seated  by  means  of  coil  springs  which  bear  against  a  cap 
carried  at  the  lower  end  of  the  valve  stem.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  valve  and  its  oj^erating  plunger  is  clearly 
shown  at  A,  Fig.  13'.  The  valves  are  opened  at  the  proper 
time  by  the  action  of  a  simple  member  called  a  cam.  This 
is  of  the  form  shown  at  Fig.  13,  B,  and  consists  of  an 
approximately  circular  member  except  for  a  raised  por- 
tion at  one  jDoint  on  its  periphery.  One  cam  is  provided 
for  each  valve,  there  being  eight  cams  in  the  Ford  en- 
gine all  fonned  integrally  with  the  cam  shaft.  As  will 
be  apparent  by  referring  to  B,  Fig.  13,  the  valve  plunger 
is  raised  when  the  pointed  portion  of  the  cam  passes 
under  it. 

The  cam  shaft  is  revolved  at  half  the  crank  shaft 
speed,  and  is  driven  by  means  of  a  large  gear  which  meshes 
with  a  pinion  half  its  size  called  the  small  time  gear 
keyed  to  the  crank  shaft.  An  important  point  to  observe 
is  that  the  valves  are  properly  timed.  This  may  be  easily 
deteiTQined  by  checking  to  see  if  the  factory  timing  has 


SETO  MARKS 
TOGETHER 


Crank  Shaft 


Fig.  13.— Showing  Method  of  Ford  Valve  Construction  and  Operation. 

60 


Ford  Engine  Parts  and  Functions  61 

been  disturbed.  The  timing  is  easily  accomplished  by 
having  the  tooth  on  the  small  time  gear  marked  with  a 
0  fit  between  two  teeth  on  the  large  timing  gear  at  a  cor- 
responding 0  point.  At  this  time  the  first  cam  on  the 
cam  shaft  should  point  in  a  direction  opposite  from  the 
zero  marks,  as  shown  at  Fig.  13,  C.  The  points  of  open- 
ing and  closing  of  the  valves  and  the  troubles  that  are  apt 
to  materialize  in  these  members  will  be  discussed  fully 
in  the  chapter  on  Engine  Maintenance. 

The  crank  shaft  is  one  of  the  most  important  members 
of  the  engine,  because  it  receives  all  the  power  delivered 
to  it  by  the  pistons  and  convej^s  the  energy  to  the  trans- 
mission gearing  from  which  the  drive  is  taken  to  the  rear 
wheels  of  the  car.  The  crank  shaft,  which  is  a  vanadium 
steel  forging,  is  supported  by  three  main  bearings,  one 
at  each  end  and  one  at  the  center.  The  flywheel  member 
attached  to  the  crank  shaft  serves  to  equalize  the  power 
application  and  steady  the  action  of  the  engine  as  it 
serves  to  keep  the  crank  shaft  moving  the  brief  intervals 
of  time  between  the  ending  of  one  explosion  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  next  one.  The  manifolds  are  pipes  used 
to  convey  the  gas  in  or  out  of  the  cylinder.  The  intake 
pipe  is  an  aluminum  or  cast  iron  member  that  conveys 
the  fresh  gas  from  the  carburetor  to  the  inlet  valve  cham- 
bers. The  exhaust  pipe  directs  the  burnt  gas  to  the  muf- 
fler. The  four-blade,  belt-driven  fan  at  the  front  end  of 
the  motor  forms  part  of  the  engine-cooling  system.  The 
starting  crank  is  provided  so  the  engine  can  be  set  in 
motion  by  hand  to  move  the  pistons  until  an  exjjlosion  is 
obtained  when  it  is  desired  to  start  it.  The  various  parts 
of  the  transmission  gear  and  control  assembly  will  be 
described  in  the  next  chapter.  Access  to  the  interior  of 
the  crank  case  is  obtained  by  removing  a  pressed  steel 


62  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

plate  on  the  bottom  of  tlip  engine.  The  valve  springs  may 
be  readied  by  removing  steel  plates  covering  the  chambers 
in  which  they  are  housed.  The  inlet  and  exhaust  pipes 
are  held  in  place  by  simple  clamp  or  stirrup  members 
while  the  cvlinder  head  is  secured  to  the  cvlinder  casting 
by  substantial  removable  retaining  bolts.  The  lower  part 
of  the  engine  crank  case,  which  is  a  steel  stamping,  is 
fastened  to  the  upper  portion  by  another  series  of  re- 
movable machine  bolts.  If  the  illustration  at  Fig.  11  is 
studied  carefully  no  difficulty  should  be  experienced  in 
identifying  the  various  parts  of  the  Ford  engine  and  un- 
derstanding the  work  they  do. 

The  Ford  Carburetion  System. — There  is  no  appliance 
that  has  more  material  value  upon  the  efficiency  of  the 
internal  combustion  motor  than  the  carburetor  or  vapor- 
izer which  supplies  the  explosive  gas  to  the  cylinders.  It 
is  only  in  recent  years  that  engineers  have  realized  the 
importance  of  using  carburetors  that  are  efficient  and 
that  are  so  strongly  made  that  there  will  be  little  liability 
of  derangement.  As  the  power  obtained  from  the  gas  en- 
gine depends  upon  the  combustion  of  fuel  in  the  cylinders, 
it  is  evident  that  if  the  gas  supplied  does  not  have  the 
proper  proportions  of  elements  to  insure  rapid  combus- 
tion the  efficiency  of  the  engine  will  be  low.  When  a  gas 
engine  is  used  as  a  stationary  installation  it  is  possible 
to  use  ordinary  illuminating  or  natural  gas  for  fuel,  but 
when  this  prime  mover  is  applied  to  automobile  or  marine 
service  it  is  evident  that  considerable  difficulty  would  be 
experienced  in  carrying  enough  compressed  coal  gas  to 
supply  the  engine  for  even  a  very  short  trip.  Fortu- 
nately, the  development  of  the  internal  combustion  motor 
was  not  delayed  by  the  lack  of  suitable  fuel.  Engineers 
were  familiar  with  projierties  of  certain  liquids  which  gave 


Principles  of  Carhuretion  OutVmcd  63 

off  vapors  that  could  be  mixed  with  air  to  form  an  ex- 
plosive gas  which  burned  very  well  in  the  engine  cylinders. 
A  very  small  quantity  of  such  liquids  would  suffice  for  very 
satisfactory  periods  of  engine  operation.  The  jiroblem  to 
be  solved  before  these  liquids  could  be  applied  in  a  prac- 
tical manner  was  to  evolve  suitable  apparatus  for  vaporiz- 
ing them  without  waste.  Among  the  liquids  that  can  be 
combined  with  air  and  burned,  gasoline  is  the  most  com- 
mon and  is  the  fuel  utilized  by  the  majority  of  internal 
combustion  engines  employed  in  self-propelled  convey- 
ances. 

Principles  of  Carburetion  Outlined. — The  process  of  car- 
huretion is  combining  the  volatile  vapors  which  evaporate 
from  the  hydrocarbon  liquids  with  certain  proportions  of 
air  to  form  an  inflammable  gas.  The  quantities  of  air 
needed  vary  with  different  liquids  and  some  mixtures  burn 
([uicker  than  do  other  combinations  of  air  and  vapor. 
Combustion  is  simply  burning  and  as  we  have  seen,  it  may 
be  rapid,  moderate,  or  slow.  Mixtures  of  gasoline  and  air 
burn  quickly,  in  fact  the  combustion  is  so  rapid  that  it  is 
instantaneous  and  we  obtain  what  is  commonly  termed 
an  ^'explosion."  Therefore  the  explosion  of  gas  in  the 
automobile  engine  cylinder  which  produces  the  power  is 
due  to  a  combination  of  chemical  elements  which  produce 
heat.  If  the  gasoline  mixture  is  not  properly  proportioned 
the  rate  of  burning  will  vary,  and  if  the  mixture  is  either 
too  rich  or  too  weak  the  energy'  of  the  explosion  is  re- 
duced and  the  amount  of  power  applied  to  the  piston  is 
decreased  proportionately. 

In  determining  the  proper  proportions  of  gasoline  and 
air,  one  must  take  the  chemical  composition  of  gasoline 
into  account.  The  ordinary  liquid  used  for  fuel  is  said  to 
contain  about  eighty-four  per  cent,  carbon  and  sixteen  per 


64  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

cent,  li^^drogen.  Air  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen 
and  the  former  has  a  great  affinity  or  combining  power 
with  the  two  constituents  of  hydrocarbon  liquids.  There- 
fore, what  we  call  an  explosion  is  merely  an  indication  that 
oxygen  in  the  air  has  combined  with  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen of  the  gasoline. 

In  figuring  the  proper  volume  of  air  to  mix  with  a  given 
quantity  of  fuel  one  takes  into  account  the  fact  that  one 
pound  of  hydrogen  requires  eight  pounds  of  oxygen  to 
burn  it,  and  one  pound  of  carbon  needs  two  and  one  third 
pounds  of  oxygen  to  insure  its  combustion.  Air  is  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  oxygen  to  three  and  one  half  por- 
tions of  nitrogen  by  weight.  Therefore,  for  each  pound 
of  oxygen  one  needs  to  burn  hydrogen  or  carbon  four  and 
one  half  pounds  of  air  must  be  allowed.  To  insure  com- 
bustion of  one  pound  of  gasoline  which  is  composed  of 
hydrogen  and  carbon  we  must  furnish  about  ten  pounds 
of  air  to  burn  the  carbon  and  about  six  pounds  of  air  to 
insure  combustion  of  hydrogen,  the  other  component  of 
gasoline.  This  means  that  to  burn  one  pound  of  gasoline 
one  must  provide  about  sixteen  pounds  of  air. 

"V^Hiile  one  does  not  usually  consider  air  as  having 
much  weight,  at  a  temperature  of  sixty-two  degrees 
Fahrenheit  about  fourteen  cubic  feet  of  air  will  weigh 
a  pound,  and  to  burn  a  pound  of  gasoline  one  would  re- 
quire about  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air.  This  amount 
will  provide  for  combustion  theoretically,  but  it  is  common 
practice  to  allow  twice  this  amount  because  the  element 
nitrogen,  which  is  the  main  constituent  of  air,  is  an  inert 
gas  w^hich  instead  of  aiding  combustion,  acts  as  a  deterrent 
of  burning.  In  order  to  be  explosive,  gasoline  vapor  must 
be  combined  with  certain  quantities  of  air.  Mixtures  that 
are  rich  in  gasoline  ignite  quicker  than  those  which  have 


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66  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

more  air,  but  these  are  only  suitable  when  starting  or 
when  running  slowly.  The  endeavor  is  to  obtain  a  correct 
mixture  of  gasoline  and  air  as  it  not  only  burns  quicker 
but  produces  the  most  heat  and  the  most  effective  jDres- 
sure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  piston  top  area. 

The  amount  of  compression  of  the  charge  before  igni- 
tion also  has  material  bearing  on  the  force  or  power  of  the 
explosion.  The  higher  the  degree  of  compression  the  great- 
er the  force  exerted  and  the  more  rapid  the  combustion  of 
the  gas.  Mixtures  varying  from  one  part  of  gasoline  vapor 
to  four  of  air  to  others  having  one  part  of  gasoline  vapor 
to  thirteen  of  air  can  be  ignited,  but  the  best  results  are 
obtained  when  the  proportions  are  one  to  five  or  one  to 
seven,  as  this  mixture  is  the  one  that  will  produce  the 
highest  temperature  the  quickest  explosion  and  the  most 
pressure. 

The  Ford  fuel  system  is  clearly  shown  in  accompany- 
ing diagram,  Fig.  14.  The  gasoline  supply  is  carried 
in  a  cylindrical  galvanized  iron  tank  under  the  front  seat. 
This  is  joined  to  the  carburetor  by  a  simple  pipe  line  of 
flexible  soft  copper  tubing.  The  construction  of  one  type 
of  carburetor  is  shown  in  this  illustration.  Before  the 
gasoline  can  flow  to  the  vaporizer  it  must  pass  through  the 
sediment  bulb  and  filtering  device  on  the  bottom  of  the 
tank. 

Utility  of  Gasoline  Strainer. — Some  carburetors  include 
a  filtering  screen  at  the  jDoint  where  the  liquid  enters  the 
float  chamber  in  order  to  keep  dirt  or  any  other  matter 
which  may  be  present  in  the  fuel  from  entering  the  float 
chamber.  This  is  not  general  practice,  however,  and  the 
majority  of  vaporizers  do  not  include  a  filter  in  their  con- 
struction. It  is  very  desirable  that  the  dirt  should  be  kept 
out  of  the  carburetor  because  it  may  get  under  the  float 


What  a  Carburetor  Should  Do  67 

controlled  fuel  inlet  valve  and  cause  flooding  by  keeping 
it  raised  from  its  seat.  If  dirt  finds  its  way  into  the  spray- 
ing orifice  it  may  block  the  opening  so  that  no  gasoline  will 
issue  or  may  so  constrict  the  passage  that  only  very  small 
quantities  of  fuel  will  be  supplied  the  mixture.  Where  the 
carburetor  itself  is  not  provided  with  a  filtering  screen  a 
simple  filter  is  usually  installed  in  the  pipe  line  betweeii 
the  gasoline  tank  and  the  float  chamber. 

The  simple  form  of  filter  and  separator  shown  at 
Fig.  14  is  used  in  the  Ford  fuel  system.  That  illustrated 
consists  of  a  simple  hollow  brass  casting  having  a  readily 
detachable  gauze  screen  facing  the  outlet  and  a  settling 
chamber  of  sufficient  capacity  to  allow  the  foreign  matter 
to  settle  to  the  bottom  from  which  it  may  be  drained  out 
by  a  pet  cock.  Any  water  or  dirt  in  the  gasoline  will  settle 
to  the  bottom  of  the  chamber,  and  as  all  fuel  delivered  to 
the  carburetor  must  pass  through  the  wire  gauze  screen 
it  is  not  likely  to  contain  imjDurities  when  it  reaches  the 
carburetor.  The  heavier  particles,  such  as  scale  from,  the 
tank  or  dirt  and  even  water,  all  of  which  have  greater 
weight  than  the  gasoline,  will  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the 
chamber  whereas  light  particles,  such  as  lint,  will  be  pre- 
vented from  flowing  into  the  carburetor  by  the  filtering 
screen. 

What  a  Carburetor  Should  Do. — AMiile  it  is  apparent  that 
the  chief  function  of  a  carbureting  device  is  to  mix  hydro- 
carbon vapors  with  air  to  secure  mixtures  that  will  burn, 
there  are  a  number  of  factors  which  must  be  considered 
before  describing  the  principles  of  vaporizing  devices.  Al- 
most any  device  which  permits  a  current  of  air  to  pass  over 
or  through  a  volatile  liquid  will  produce  a  gas  which 
will  explode  when  compressed  and  ignited  in  the  motor 
cylinder.    Modern  carburetors  are  not  only  called  upon  to 


68  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

supply  certain  quantities  of  gas,  but  tliese  must  deliver  a 
mixture  to  the  cylinders  that  is  accurately  proportioned 
and  which  will  be  of  proper  composition  at  all  engine 
speeds. 

Flexible  control  of  the  engine  is  sought  by  altering  the 
engine  speed  through  regulation  of  the  supply  of  gas  to 
the  cylinders.  The  power  plant  should  run  from  its  low- 
est to  its  highest  speed  without  any  irregularity  in  torque, 
i.e.,  the  acceleration  should  be  gradual  rather  than  spas- 
modic. As  the  degree  of  compression  will  vary  in  value 
with  the  amount  of  throttle  opening  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  obtain  maximum  power  differ  with  var^dng 
engine  speeds.  When  the  throttle  is  barely  opened  the 
engine  speed  is  low  and  the  gas  must  be  richer  in  fuel 
than  when  the  throttle  is  wide  open  and  the  engine  speed 
high.  "When  an  engine  is  turning  over  slowly  on  low 
throttle  the  compression  has  low  value  and  the  conditions 
are  not  so  favorable  to  rapid  combustion  as  when  the 
compression  is  high.  At  high-engine  speeds  the  gas  veloc- 
ity through  the  intake  piijing  is  higher  than  at  low  speeds, 
and  regular  engine  action  is  not  so  apt  to  be  disturbed  by 
condensation  of  liquid  fuel  in  the  manifold  due  to  exces- 
sively rich  mixture  or  a  superabundance  of  liquid  in  the 
stream  of  carbureted  air. 

The  Ford  Float  Feed  Carburetor. — The  modern  form  of 
spraying  carburetor  is  provided  with  two  chambers,  one  a 
mixing  chamber  through  which  the  air  stream  passes  and 
mixes  with  a  gasoline  spray,  the  other  a  float  chamber  in 
which  a  constant  level  of  fuel  is  maintained  hj  a  simple 
mechanism.  A  nozzle  or  its  equivalent  is  used  in  the  mix- 
ing chamber  to  spray  the  fuel  through  and  the  object  of 
the  float  is  to  maintain  the  fuel  level  to  such  a  point  that 
it  will  not  overflow  when  the  motor  is  not  drawing  in  a 


Ford  Carburetor  Construction 


69 


charge  of  gas.  Two  different  forms  of  carburetors  have 
been  used  on  Ford  cars  as  regular  equipment.  One  of 
these  is  shown  in  connection  with  the  Fuel  system  at  Fig. 
14,  the  other  is  outlined  at  Fig.   15.     The  principle  of 


LOCKING  SCREW 

ADJUSTING   SCREW 
THROTTLE  LEVER 


t^x^miBALL 
<^^*'AUXiLIARY 


Fig.  15. — Part  Sectional  View  of  Special  Kingston  Carburetor  Used  on 

some  Ford  Model  T  Cars. 

action  is  the  same  for  both  types,  except  that  one  has  an 
auxiliary  air  attachment  consisting  of  a  series  of  bronze 
balls  which  open  progressively  as  the  engine  suction  in- 
creases to  admit  more  air  into  the  mixture.  This  form 
is  shown  at  Fig.  15.  The  Ford  carburetor  has  but  one 
adjustment  and  that  by  the  gasoline  needle  valve.     The 


70  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

fuel  enters  the  float  bowl  through  a  connection  at  its  side, 
its  level  in  that  member  being  regulated  by  the  height 
of  a  cork  float.  The  float  raises  as  the  supply  increases 
to  a  point  where  the  gasoline  supply  regulating  valve  is 
seated,  this  cutting  off  the  flow  of  gasoline.  As  the  gaso- 
line is  used  up  and  the  amount  in  the  bowl  becomes  less 
the  float  lowers  and  through  the  medium  of  a  bell  crank 
or  simple  lever  lifts  the  needle  from  its  seat  and  permits 
more  gasoline  to  flow  into  the  float  bowd  from  the  gaso- 
line tank.  It  is  evident  that  a  constant  level  of  gasoline 
in  the  float  bowl  is  maintained  by  the  automatic  action  of 
the  float  controlled  needle.  The  amount  of  gasoline  enter- 
ing into  the  mixture  is  governed  by  the  needle  valve  con- 
trolling the  orifice  through  which  the  fuel  flows  from  the 
float  bowl  to  the  interior  of  the  mixing  chamber.  The 
volume  of  gaseous  mixture  entering  the  intake  pipe,  which 
in  turn  determines  power  and  speed  of  the  motor,  is  con- 
trolled by  opening  or  closing  a  simple  gate  or  shutter 
valve,  similar  to  the  damper  used  in  a  stove  pipe,  accord- 
ing to  the  engine  speed  desired  by  the  driver. 

A  mixture  that  contains  too  much  air  and  not  enough 
gasoline  is  known  as  "lean"  mixture.  If  there  is  too 
much  liquid  fuel  and  not  enough  air  the  gas  is  called  a 
"rich"  mixture.  Neither  one  of  these  conditions  is  de- 
sirable as  the  engine  will  be  hard  to  start  and  lack  power 
on  a  lean  mixture  and  it  will  tend  to  overheat  and  be 
wasteful  of  fuel  as  well  as  promoting  carbon  deposits  if 
the  mixture  is  too  rich.  A  rich  mixture  is  indicated  by  a 
heavy  black  exhaust  smoke  having  a  disagreeable  smell. 
When  this  condition  is  manifested  the  needle  valve  regu- 
lator on  the  dash  should  be  screwed  down  or  to  the  right 
until  the  engine  begins  to  misfire,  then  the  gasoline  feed 
is  gradually  increased  by  opening  the  needle  valve  in  the 


Action  of  Ford  Carburetor  71 

other  direction  slowly  to  that  point,  wherc^  the  motor  rnns 
steadily  and  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  with  a  full  throttle 
opening,  at  the  same  time,  there  being  no  evidence  of 
smoke  in  the  exhaust.  The  reader  should  be  cautioned  that 
a  white  smoke  coming  out  of  the  exhaust  indicates  too 
much  lubricating  oil  and  not  too  much  gasoline.  If  pop- 
ping sounds  are  heard  in  the  carburetor  when  the  engine 
is  running  it  is  because  the  mixture  is  too  lean  and  the 
gasoline  needle  valve  should  be  opened  just  enough  to 
jDermit  the  engine  to  run  well  and  yet  not  back  fire. 

As  will  be  evident  by  studying  the  sectional  views  of 
Figs.  14  and  15  the  gasoline  level  in  the  carburetor  is  at 
just  such  a  height  that  a  small  pool  of  gasoline  will  collect 
at  the  bottom  of  the  mixing  chamber.  The  entering  air 
current  passing  the  air  intake  shutter  is  deflected  toward 
the  bottom  of  the  float  chamber  by  a  suitable  baffle  plate  or 
other  obstruction  and  must  sweep  across  the  surface  of  the 
gasoline  and  become  thoroughly  impregnated  with  parti- 
cles of  liquid  fuel  before  it  can  pass  into  the  intake  mani- 
fold. The  action  at  high  speed  is  different  from  that 
present  at  low  speed  because  the  greater  engine  suction 
and  more  rapidly  moving  air  column  does  not  give  the 
gasoline  a  chance  to  accumulate  in  a  i)ool  at  the  bottom  of 
the  mixing  chamber,  but  draws  it  from  the  orifice  regu- 
lated by  the  needle  valve  in  the  form  of  a  spray.  The 
construction  of  a  Ford  carburetor  is  such  that  a  correct 
gas  is  provided  for  easy  starting  while  a  leaner  mixture 
is  obtained  as  the  engine  speed  increases  and  conditions 
become  such  that  it  can  be  utilized  to  advantage. 

The  Ford  Ignition  System. — The  essential  elements  of 
any  electrical  ignition  system,  either  high  or  low  tension 
are :  First,  a  simple  and  practical  method  of  current  pro- 
duction; second,  suitable  timing  apparatus  to  cause  the 


72 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


spark  to  occur  at  the  right  point  in  the  cycle  of  engine 
action;  third,  suitable  wiring  and  other  apparatus  to 
convey  the  current  produced  by  the  generator  to  the  spark- 
ing member  in  the  cylinder.    The  ignition  system  used  on 


Fig.  16. — View  of  Ford  Power  Plant  Showing  Main  Parts  of  the  Ford 
Ignition  System.     Note  Location  of  Timer  and  Induction  Coil  Box. 


the  Ford  is  a  very  simple  and  practical  one.  A  four  con- 
tact primary  timer  is  mounted  at  the  front  end  of  the  cam 
shaft,  one  contact  being  provided  for  each  cylinder.  Wires 
run  from  this  device  to  the  coil  units  on  the  dash  as  shown 
in  diagrams.  Figs.  16  and  18.  Other  wires  run  from  the 
induction  coil  units  to  the  spark  plugs,  these  are  called 


Induction  Coil  System  Eccptaincd  73 

secondary  wires,  while  those  going  to  the  timer  art;  called 
primary  wires.  When  the  car  is  shipped  from  the  factory, 
no  batteries  are  furnished,  so  only  the  magneto  terminal 
is  joined  to  the  coil.  This  leaves  one  terminal  free  to  be 
connected  to  a  battery  of  drv  cells  when  that  is  furnished 
by  the  owner.  The  magneto  furnishes  all  the  current  that 
is  needed  to  run  the  car  and  the  engine  may  be  easily 
started  on  the  magneto  when  the  coil  vibrators  are  proper- 
ly adjusted  as  this  device  supplies  a  strong  current  at 
ordinary  cranking  speeds. 

Induction  Coil  System  Explained. — In  order  to  enable  the 
reader  to  understand  the  basic  principles  of  ignition  ai> 
paratus  the  important  parts  of  a  simple  battery  igni- 
tion system  for  a  one-cylinder  engine  are  shown  at  Fig. 
17.  The  current  is  supplied  from  two  sources.  One  of 
these  is  a  storage  battery,  the  other  a  dry  cell  battery. 
A  mechanical  generator  could  be  substituted  for  one  of 
the  batteries,  if  desired.  The  induction  coil  or  trans- 
fonner  coil  is  utilized  to  intensify  the  low  tension  cur- 
rent produced  by  the  battery  to  one  of  greater  value 
having  sufficient  voltage  to  jump  the  air  gap  between 
the  points  of  the  spark  plug.  The  induction  coil  unit  con- 
sists of  a  double  w^ound  coil  surrounding  a  soft  iron  core 
piece.  The  primary  coil  or  the  one  through  which  the 
battery  current  flows  consists  of  two  or  three  layers  of 
comparatively  "coarse  wire  wound  around  the  central  core. 
The  secondary  coil  is  composed  of  a  large  number  of  turns 
of  fine  threadlike  wire.  Every  time  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity is  permitted  to  flow  through  the  primary  coil  it 
energizes  the  soft  iron  core,  turns  it  into  a  magnet  and 
the  result  is  the  production  of  a  current  in  a  secondary 
coil  by  magnetic  induction,  which  has  many  times  the 
voltage  or  pressure  of  the  primary  batteiy  current  pro- 


; 


74 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Fig.  17. — Diagram  of  Simple  High  Tension  Ignition  System  for  One 
Cylinder  Motor  to  show  Arrangement  and  Wiring  of  the  Principal 
Parts. 


ducing  it,  though  its  amperage  is  greatly  reduced.  The 
average  secondary  coil  used  for  ignition  jDurposes  will 
deliver  a  current  of  eight  to  ten  thousand  volts  pressure. 
The  amperage  or  quantity  flowing  is  so  slight  that  this 
voltage  may  pass  through  the  human  body  without  pro- 
ducing any  injury. 


Ignition  Si/s-fem  miction  75 

Each  time  that  a  spark  is  desired  between  the  points 
of  the  spark  j^hig  which  projects  into  the  interior  of  the 
combustion  chamber,  a  contact  is  established  between  the 
revolving  brush  and  the  stationary  contact  of  the  timer. 
This  permits  the  current  to  flow  from  either  the  drv  or 
storage  battery  depending  upon  the  position  of  the  con- 
trolling switch  lever,  this  current  passing  through  the 
primary  winding  of  the  transformer  coil.  There  is  no 
electrical  connection  between  the  primary  and  secondaiy 
windings.  The  secondary  winding  is  grounded  at  one  end 
and  is  joined  to  the  spark  plug  by  a  high  tension  cable  at 
the  other.  In  a  simple  one-cylinder  engine  of  the  four- 
cycle type  but  one  explosion  is  possible  in  every  two 
revolutions  of  the  flj^wheel  or  in  each  four  strokes  of  the 
piston.  If  the  cam  shaft  which  carries  the  revolving  brush 
of  the  timer  rotates  at  half  the  engine  speed  it  will  be 
apparent  that  but  one  electrical  contact  will  be  established 
for  two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft.  This  contact  can 
be  timed  to  take  place  only  when  the  piston  reaches  the 
end  of  its  compression  stroke,  at  which  time  it  is  neces- 
sary to  explode  the  gas  to  produce  power. 

A  vibrator  member,  which  is  a  simple  automatic  make- 
and-break  arrangement  operated  by  the  magnetism  of  the 
induction  coil  core  piece  insures  that  the  current  will  be 
sent  through  the  primary  winding  in  a  series  of  waves 
during  the  main  contact  inten^als.  With  a  vibrator  coil  a 
stream  of  small  sparks  jump  the  air  gap  of  the  spark 
plug  all  the  time  that  the  revolving  brush  roller  is  in 
contact  with  the  stationary  contact  segment  of  the  timer. 
With  a  four  cylinder  engine  it  will  be  apparent  that  four 
contacts  must  be  established  for  each  two  revolutions 
of  the  crank  shaft  and  that  the  timer  should  have  four 
stationarv  contact  members  which  can  be  served  bv  a  com- 


76 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


mon  revolving  brush.  In  the  Ford  ignition  system  four 
independent  vibrator  coils  are  provided,  one  for  each 
cylinder.  The  method  of  wiring  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig. 
16,  which  gives  the  actual  appearance  of  the  parts  of  the 
ignition  system  while  the  course  of  the  current  may  be 
readily  followed  by  studjdng  the  diagTam,  Fig.  18.  In 
this  diagram  the  coil  units  are  shown  removed  from  the 


Ground 


5)    ^7    Timer 


Flywheel  Magneto 


Fig.  18. — Wiring  Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Connecting  Parts  of  the 

Ford  Ignition  System. 


coil  box  in  order  to  depict  clearly  the  way  the  various 
connections  are  made.  It  will  be  evident  that  as  soon  as 
the  revolving  brush  of  the  timer  leaves  the  metal  seg- 
ment and  all  the  time  that  it  is  in  contact  with  the  fibre 
ring  in  which  the  contact  segments  are  imbedded  that  no 
current  can  flow  through  any  of  the  induction  coil  units. 
As  soon  as  the  brush  establishes  contact  with  one  of  the 
segments  the  current  is  delivered  to  the  unit  that  serves 
the  cylinder  that  is  about  to  fire,  the  wires  being  con- 


Action  of  Ford  Timer  77 

nected  in  such  a  way  that  coil  unit  sup])lying  spark  plug 
No.  1  works  first,  then  No.  2,  followed  by  No.  4  and  lastly 
No.  3.  This  sequence  of  explosions  is  followed  all  the  time 
the  engine  is  in  operation. 

The  Ford  Timer. — Anyone  familiar  with  the  basic  prin- 
ciples of  internal  combustion  engine  action  will  peeognize 
the  need  of  incorporating  some  device  in  the  ignition  sys- 
tem, which  will  insure  that  the  igniting  si^arl^;  will  occur 
only  in  the  cylinder  that  is  ready  to  be  fired  and  at  the 
right  time  in  the  cycle  of  operations.  Thei'e  is  a  certain 
definite  point  at  which  the  spark  must  takt^  ^place,  this 
having  been  determined  to  be  at  the  end  of  the  compres- 
sion stroke,  at  which  time  the  gas  has  been  properly  com- 
pacted and  the  piston  is  about  to  start  returning  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  again.  Timers  or  distributors  are 
a  fomi  of  mechanically  operated  switch  designed  so  that 
hundreds  of  positive  contacts  which  are  necessary  to  close 
and  open  the  circuit  may  be  made  per  minute  wdthout 
failure.  When  a  timer  is  to  be  used  in  connection  with 
a  four-cylinder  engine  the  compact  form  shown  at  Fig.  19 
is  usually  adopted.  This  has  many  desirable  features 
and  pennits  of  timing  the  spark  with  great  accuracy. 
The  contact  segments  are  spaced  on  quarters  and  are  im- 
bedded in  a  ring  of  fibre  which  is  retained  in  a  casing 
of  aluminum.  The  central  revolving  element  carries  a 
lever  which  has  a  roll  at  one  end  and  a  tension  spring  de- 
signed to  keep  the  roller  in  contact  with  the  inner  pe- 
riphery of  the  fibre  ring  at  the  other.  The  segments  are 
of  steel  and  are  accurately  machined  and  hardened,  and  as 
the  surface  of  the  roller  is  also  hardened,  this  form  of 
timer  is  widely  used  because  it  provides  a  positive  con- 
tact and  works  smoothly  at  all  engine  speeds,  as  well  as 
having  great  endurance.    Every  time  the  roller  makes  con- 


78 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


tact  with  one  of  the  segments,  if  the  coil  switch  is  on  either 
battery  or  magneto,  a  current  will  flow  from  the  generator 
through  the  timer  and  to  the  coil  units  to  which  the  seg- 
ment is  wired.  This  produces  a  flow  of  current  through 
the  secondary  wire  to  the  spark  plug  where  a  spark  jumps 


Roller  "A" 


No.  3 


JNo.2- 


iber  Ring 


Contact 
Segments 


Rotary  Contact 
Member 


No.  4 


Fig.  19. — Parts  of  the  Ford  Ignition  Timer. 

the  air  gap  between  the  electrodes  and  explodes  the  com- 
pressed gas  surrounding  the  plug  points. 

Why  a  Magneto  is  Used  On  The  Ford. — The  fact  that 
any  chemical  battery  cannot  maintain  a  constant  supply 
of  electricity  has  militated  against  their  use  to  a  certain 
extent  and  the  modern  motorist  demands  some  appliance 
that  will  deliver  an  unfailing  supply  of  electricity.  The 
strength  of  batteries  is  reduced  according  to  the  amount 
of  service  they  give.    The  more  they  are  used  the  weaker 


Iguiliou  System  Action 


70 


they  become.  The  modern  multiple  cylinder  engines  are 
especially  severe  in  their  demands  npon  the  current  pro- 
ducer and  the  rapid  sequence  of  explosions  in  the  Ford 
high  speed  four  cylinder  motor  produces  practically  a 


Flywheel, 


Transmission 


Coils 


Fig.  20. — Showing  Coils  and  Magnet  that  Comprise  the  Ford  Magneto 
and  their  Relation  to  the  Flywheel  and  Transmission  Gear. 


steady  drain  upon  the  batter}^  When  dry  cells  are  used 
their  discharge  rate  is  very  low  and  as  they  are  designed 
only  for  intennittent  work,  when  the  conditions  are  such 
that  a  constant  flow  of  current  is  required  they  are  un- 
suitable and  will  soon  deteriorate. 


80 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


A  very  ingenious  and  practical  application  of  the 
dynamo  is  slio\Yn  at  Fig.  20,  this  being  used  on  the  Ford 
car  only.  The  electric  generator  is  built  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  power  plant.  The 
magneto  field  is  produced  by  a  series  of  revolving  perma- 
nent magnets  which  are  joined  to  and  turn  with  the  fly- 
wheel of  the  motor.    The  sixteen  current  producing  coils 


Magneto 
Coil  Spools 


End  of  Ribbo 
Grounded  Herep. 

To  Coil 
Copper  Wire 

Magneto- 
Coil  Support 


"^x^     Magnet 


Fly  Wheel 


■  Magnet 
Clamps 


Fig.  21. — Views  Showing  Construction  of  Stationary  Magneto  Coil  Carry- 
ing Member  at  Left  and  Rotary  Magnet  Carrier  that  Also  Acts  as 
the  Motor  Flywheel  at  Right. 


are  carried  by  a  fixed  plate  which  is  attached  to  the 
engine  base.  (See  Fig.  21.)  This  apparatus  is  really  a 
magneto  having  a  revolving  field  and  a  fixed  armature, 
and  as  the  magnets  are  driven  from  the  flywheel  there  is 
no  driving  connection  to  get  out  of  order  and  cause  trouble. 
The  coils  in  which  the  current  is  generated  are  stationary, 
no  rotating  commutators  or  fixed  contact  brushes  are 
needed  to  collect  the  current  because  the  electricity  may 
be  easily  taken  from  the  fixed  coils  by  a  simple  direct 
connection.  It  has  been  advanced  that  this  form  of  mag- 
neto is  not  as  efficient  as  the  conventional  patterns  be- 
cause more  metal  and  wire  is  needed  to  produce  the  cur- 
rent required.    As  the  magnets  which  form  the  heaviest 


Ulring  Dry  Cells  81 

portion  of  the  apparatus  are  joined  to  the  flywheel,  which 
can  be  correspondingly  lighter,  this  disadvantage  is  not 
one  that  can  be  considered  seriously  because  the  magnet 
weight  is  added  to  that  of  the  motor  fl^^wheel,  the  com- 
bined mass  of  the  two  being  equal  to  that  of  an  ordinary 
balance  member  used  on  any  other  engine  of  equal  power. 
The  current  supply  will  continue  as  long  as  the  engine  runs 
and  a  practically  unfailing  source  of  electricity  is  assured 
all  Ford  owners. 

Many  owners  provide  a  set  of  dry  cells  as  an  auxiliary 
source  of  current,  as  these  are  of  value  in  starting  the 
motor  sometimes  under  conditions  where  the  engine  can- 
not be  cranked  briskly  enough  to  get  a  strong  magneto 
spark.  Dry  cells  are  useful  as  a  check  upon  the  magneto 
and  are  also  of  value  when  adjusting  the  coil  vibrators. 
The  engine  will  also  start  on  the  spark  sometimes  without 
cranking  when  dry  cells  are  used.  The  writer  operated 
his  car  for  two  seasons  with  the  magneto  alone  and  without 
a  battery  and  never  felt  the  need  of  one.  It  was  only 
when  a  storage  battery  was  added  to  the  equipment  to 
operate  electric  side  and  tail  lamps  that  the  batteiy  ter- 
minal of  the  coil  was  put  into  circuit,  though  it  was  seldom 
used. 

Wiring  Dry  Cells. — One  of  the  disadvantages  of  pri- 
mary cells,  as  those  types,  which  utilize  zinc  as  a  negative 
element  are  called,  is  that  the  chemical  action  produces 
deterioration  and  waste  of  material  by  oxidization.  Dry 
cells  are  usually  proi)ortioned  so  the  electrolyte  and  de- 
polarizing materials  become  weaker  as  the  zinc  is  used 
and  when  a  dry  cell  is  exhausted  it  is  not  profitable  to 
attempt  to  recharge  it  because  new  ones  can  be  obtained 
at  a  lower  cost  than  the  expense  of  renewing  the  worn  ele- 
ments would  be.     On  four-cylinder  cars  dry  cells  should 


82 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Covers  chafed- Zinc  shells  in  contact  Loose  Terminals 


Terminals  in  contact 


Frayed  wire 


rig.  22. — Illustrating  Method  of  Connecting  Dry  Cells  in  Series  at  A 
and  in  Series  Multiple  at  B.  The  Lower  Illustration  Shows  Some 
of  the  Points  to  be  Watched  For  When  Dry  Cells  Are  Installed  in 
Meta^.  Battery  Boxes. 


be  joined  in  multiple  series,  which  is  more  enduring  than 
if  the  same  number  were  used  independently  in  single- 
series  connection.    A  disadvantage  of  a  dry  cell  battery 


Wiring  Dry  Cells  83 

is  that  it  is  suited  only  for  intermittent  service  and  it 
will  soon  become  exhausted  if  used  where  the  current 
demands  are  severe.  For  this  reason,  most  automobiles 
in  which  batteries  only  are  used  for  ignition,  employ  stor- 
age or  secondary  batteries  to  furnish  the  current  regularly 
used  and  set  of  dry  cells  is  provided  for  use  only  in  cases 
of  emergency  when  the  storage  battery  becomes  exhausted. 
To  join  dry  cells  in  series,  the  zinc  of  one  cell  should  be 
joined  with  the  carbon  of  the  adjacent  member  by  a  flexible 
conductor.  This  will  leave  the  carbon  of  one  end  cell  and 
the  zinc  of  other  end  cell  free  so  they  can  be  joined  to 
the  apparatus  in  the  outer  circuit  (see  Fig.  22,  A). 

When  it  is  desired  to  obtain  more  amperage  or  cur- 
rent quantity  than  could  be  obtained  from  a  single  cell 
they  are  joined  in  series-multiple  connection,  as  at  Fig. 
22,  B.  With  this  method  of  wiring  two  or  more  sets  of 
four  cells  which  have  been  joined  in  series  are  used.  The 
zinc  of  one  set  is  joined  with  the  zinc  element  of  the  others 
and  the  carbon  terminals  are  similarly  connected.  Any 
number  of  sets  of  cells  may  be  connected  in  series-multi- 
ple, and  the  amperage  of  the  combination  is  increased 
proportionately  to  the  number  of  sets  joined  together  in 
this  manner.  When  dry  cells  are  connected  in  series  the 
voltage  of  one  cell  is  multiplied  by  the  number  of  cells 
and  the  amperage  obtained  from  the  set  is  equal  to  that 
of  one  cell.  When  connected  in  series-multiple,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  22,  B,  the  amperage  is  equal  to  three  cells,  and 
the  voltage  produced  is  equivalent  to  that  obtained  from 
four  cells.  When  twelve  cells  are  joined  in  series-mul- 
tiple the  amperage  is  equal  to  that  of  one  cell  multiplied 
by  three,  while  the  voltage  or  current  pressure  is  equal 
to  that  produced  by  one  cell  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  cells  which  are  in  series  in  any  one  set.    By  properly 


84  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

combining  dry  cells  in  this  manner,  batteries  of  any  de- 
sired current  strength  may  be  obtained. 

The  terms  "volt"  and  ''ampere"  are  merely  units 
by  which  current  strength  is  gauged.  The  volt  is  the 
unit  of  pressure  or  potential  which  exists  between  the 
terminals  of  a  circuit.  The  ampere  is  a  measure  of  cur- 
rent quantity  or  flow  and  is  independent  of  the  pressure. 
One  may  have  a  current  of  high  amperage  at  low  poten- 
tial or  one  having  great  pressure  and  but  little  amperage 
or  current  strength.  Voltage  is  necessary  to  overcome 
resistance  while  the  amperage  available  determines  the 
heating  value  of  the  current.  As  the  resistance  to  cur- 
rent flow  increases  the  voltage  must  be  augmented  pro- 
portionally to  overcome  it.  A  current  having  strength  of 
one  ampere  with  a  pressure  of  one  volt  is  said  to  have 
a  value  of  one  watt,  which  is  the  unit  by  which  the  capac- 
ity of  generators  and  the  amount  of  current  consumption 
of  electrical  apparatus  is  gauged. 

The  Master  Vibrator  System. — One  of  the  most  ^videly 
advertised  accessories  intended  for  the  use  of  Ford  car 
owners  is  called  a  "master  vibrator";  this  consists  of 
a  simple  primary  coil  carrjdng  a  vibrator  intended  to 
serve  all  of  the  coil  units,  the  regular  vibrators  with 
which  these  are  provided  being  short  circuited  so  that 
thej^  do  not  operate.  Opinions  regarding  the  practical 
utility  of  a  master  \T.brator  differ  greatly,  some  contend- 
ing that  it  materially  improves  the  steady  operation  of 
the  engine  while  others  do  not  believe  that  it  is  of  any 
material  benefit.  The  contention  made  by  those  favoring 
this  device  is  that  the  use  of  one  vibrator  for  all  coil  units 
provides  a  spark  that  will  occur  in  each  cylinder  at  ex- 
actly the  same  time  in  the  cycle  of  operations,  because 
it  reduces  the  lag  that  might  result  from  tardy  action  of 


The  Master  Vibrator  System 


85 


oue  or  more  of  the  individual  unit  coil  vibrators.  The 
argument  of  greater  simplicity  of  having  but  one  vibrator 
to  adjust  at  any  time  is  the  more  reasonable  one.  The 
\Yriter  did  not  find  it  necessary  to  use  a  master  vibrator 
or  any  other  of  the  legion  of  devices  advertised  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  the  Ford  car.     The  vibrators  of 


Looking  at  Front  o£  Dash  Under  Hood 


r 


Coik 


Leave  this  Blank-  ,  o  fi''^  o  ] 
c  '"^j-CsI  o  1 

Front  of  Dash 


K.W. Master  Vibrator 


i^i 


To  Battery,  if  used 


®/ 


hs--"-"-"/-t'-->.->  /  'N 

(E). 


Edge  View,  Showing 
Wire  Shunt  to 
Coil  Vibrator 
Top  View 

Showing,  how  to  Short  Circuit  Spark  Coil  Vibrators 


Bottom  Platinum 
- — ^^        Point 


JIq^< 


O  )   Top  Platinum 
V_y  Point 


Fig.    23. — Showing   Application    of   Master    Vibrator   in    Ford    Ignition 

System. 

the  four  unit  coil  regularly  provided  gave  very  little  trou- 
ble, as  it  was  only  the  work  of  a  few  minutes  to  get  all 
of  these  adjusted  to  the  point  where  satisfactory  engine 
action  was  obtained.  The  theory  of  irregular  engine 
action  due  to  lag  of  a  poorly  adjusted  vibrator  on  any 
one  of  the  coil  units  is  only  true  in  cases  where  the 
vibrator  adjustment  has  been  carried  to  a  point  where 


80  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

it  is  practically  inoperative.  The  non-mechanical  OAvner 
who  cannot  adjust  the  vibrators  furnished  on  the  regular 
Ford  coil  properly  is  not  apt  to  have  much  success  in 
adjusting  that  of  a  master  vibrator,  inasmuch  as  faulty 
adjustment  of  the  one  vibrator  serving  all  coil  units  will 
throw  the  entire  ignition  system  out  of  order,  whereas 
if  only  one  of  the  four  coil  units  is  not  properly  adjusted 
the  engine  will  be  able  to  run  with  some  degree  of  power 
on  the  other  three  units. 

As  many  Ford  cars  have  been  fitted  with  a  master 
vibrator  by  their  owners,  these  afterward  passing  into 
other  hands,  it  may  be  well  for  the  reader  to  familiarize 
himself  with  the  method  of  installation  of  this  component. 
The  diagram  shown  in  the  upper  left  corner  of  Fig.  23 
shows  the  way  the  master  vibrator  is  placed  in  circuit. 
The  plan  and  side  views  below  the  wiring  diagram  show 
the  simple  method  of  short  circuiting  the  regular  spark 
coil  vibrator  by  joining  the  vibrating  and  fixed  jiortions 
with  a  short  length  of  wire.  At  the  right  of  the  illus- 
tration are  views  showing  the  construction  of  the  master 
vibrator,  depicting  the  large  platinum  points  necessary 
when  one  member  serves  four  coil  units,  also  the  means 
provided  for  adjustment. 

Why  Cooling-  Systems  Are  Necessary. — The  reader  should 
now  understand  that  the  power  of  any  internal  combus- 
tion motor  is  obtained  by  the  rapid  combustion  and  conse- 
quent expansion  of  some  inflammable  gas.  The  opera- 
tion in  brief  is  that  when  air  or  any  other  gas  or  vapor 
is  heated,  it  will  expand,  and  that  if  this  gas  is  confined 
in  a  space  which  will  not  permit  expansion,  pressure  will 
be  exerted  against  all  sides  of  the  containing  chamber. 
The  more  a  gas  is  heated  the  more  pressure  it  will  exert 
upon  the  walls  of  the  combustion  chamber  by  which  it  is 


IVJi//  Cooling  System  is  Needed  87 

confined.  Pressure  in  a  gas  may  be  created  by  increasing 
its  temperature,  and  inversely  heat  may  be  created  by  . 
pressure.  When  a  gas  is  compressed  its  total  volume  is 
reduced  and  the  temperature  is  augmented.  The  efficiency 
of  any  form  of  heat  engine  is  determined  by  the  power 
obtained  from  a  certain  fuel  consumption.  A  definite 
amount  of  energy  will  be  liberated  in  the  form  of  heat 
when  a  given  quantity  of  any  fuel  is  burned.  The  effi- 
ciency of  any  heat  engine  is  proportional  to  the  power 
developed  from  a  definite  quantity  of  fuel  with  the  least 
loss  of  thermal  units.  If  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
heat  units  derived  by  burning  the  explosive  mixture  could 
be  utilized  in  doing  useful  work,  the  efficiency  of  the 
gasoline  engine  would  be  much  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  form  of  power  producer. 

There  is  a  great  loss  of  heat  from  various  causes, 
among  which  can  be  cited  the  reduction  of  pressure 
through  cooling  the  motor  and  the  loss  of  the  heat 
through  the  exhaust  valves  w^hen  the  burned  gases  are 
expelled  from  cylinder.  The  loss  through  the  water 
jacket  of  the  average  automobile  power  plant  is  over 
50%  of  the  total  fuel  efficiency.  This  means  that  more 
than  half  of  the  heat  units  that  should  be  available  for 
power  are  absorbed  and  dissipated  by  the  cooling  water. 
Another  16%  is  lost  through  the  exhaust  valve,  and  but 
33%%  of  heat  units  do  useful  work.  The  great  loss  of 
heat  through  the  cooling  systems  cannot  be  avoided,  as 
some  method  must  be  provided  to  keep  the  temperature 
of  the  engine  within  proper  bounds.  It  is  apparent  that 
the  rapid  combustion  and  continued  series  of  explosions 
would  soon  heat  the  metal  portions  of  the  engine  to  a  red 
heat  if  some  means  were  not  taken  to  conduct  much  of 
this  heat  away.    The  high  temperature  of  the  parts  would 


88  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

burn  the  lubricating  oil,  even  that  of  the  best  quality, 
and  the  piston  and  rings  would  expand  to  such  a  degree, 
especially  when  deprived  of  oil,  that  they  would  seize  in 
the  cylinder.  This  would  score  the  walls,  and  the  friction 
which  ensued  would  tend  to  bind  the  parts  so  tightly  that 
the  piston  would  stick,  bearings  would  be  burned  out, 
valves  w^ould  warp,  and  the  engine  would  soon  become 
inoperative.  

The  best  temperature  to  secure  efficient  operation  is 
one  on  which  considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists 
among  engineers.  The  fact  that  the  efficiency  of  an  en- 
gine is  dependent  upon  the  ratio  of  heat  converted  into 
work  compared  to  that  generated  by  the  explosion  of  the 
gas  is  accepted  fact.  It  is  very  important  that  the  engine 
should  not  get  too  hot,  and  at  the  other  hand  it  is  equally 
vital  that  the  cylinder  be  not  robbed  of  too  much  heat. 
The  object  of  cylinder  cooling  is  to  keep  the  temperature 
of  the  cylinder  below  the  danger  point,  but  at  the  same 
time  to  have  it  as  high  as  possible  to  secure  maximum 
power  from  the  gas  burned. 

Cooling  Systems  Generally  Applied. — There  are  two 
general  systems  of  engine  cooling  in  common  use:  that 
in  which  water  is  heated  by  the  absorption  of  heat  from 
the  engine  and  then  cooled  by  air,  and  the  other  method 
in  which  the  air  is  directed  onto  flanged  cylinders  and 
absorbs  the  heat  directly  instead  of  through  the  medium 
of  water.  When  the  liquid  is  employed  in  cooling  it  is 
circulated  through  jackets  which  surround  the  cylinder 
casting,  and  the  water  may  be  kept  in  motion  by  two 
methods.  The  one  sometimes  favored  is  to  use  a  positive 
circulating  pump  of  some  form  which  is  driven  by  the 
engine  to  keep  the  water  in  motion.  The  other  system 
is  to  utilize  a  natural  principle  that  heated  w^ater  is  lighter 


Water  Cooling  Si/.stcni 


89 


tlian  cold  liquid,  and  that  it  will  tend  to  rise  to  the  top 
of  the  cylinder  when  it  becomes  heated  to  the  proper 
temperature  and  cooler  water  takes  its  place  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water  jacket. 

Ford  Water  Circulation  by  Natural  System. — Some  en- 
gineers contend  that  the  rapid  water  circulation  obtained 


Fill  Here 


Top  Hose 

Outlet  Connection 


CpperEadiator^ 
Tank 


Fun- 

Kadiator  Tubing- 
and  Fins 


Lower  Radiator  Tank 


Cylinder  Head  and 
Water  Jackets 

-ilotor  Exhaust  Pipe 

Cylinder  Casting  and 
'Water  Jackets 


Side  Water 
"Connection 


HoseClip 
Side  Water  Hose 


Lower  Radiator  Hose 


Fig.  24. — The  Ford  Thermo-Syphon  Water  Cooling  System. 

by  using  a  pump  may  cool  the  cylinders  too  much,  and 
that  the  temperature  of  the  engine  may  be  reduced  so 
much  that  the  efficiency  will  be  lessened.  For  this  reason 
there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  use  the  natural  method  of 
water  circulation  as  the  cooling  liquid  is  supplied  to  the 
cylinder  jackets  just  below  the  boiling  point,  and  the 
water  issues  from  the  jacket  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
after  it  has  absorbed  sufficient  heat  to  raise  it  just  about 
to  the  boiling  point. 


90  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

The  Ford  cooling  system,  depicted  at  Fig.  24,  is  very 
successful  in  practice,  and  is  somewliat  simpler  than  the 
forms  in  which  a  pump  is  used  to  maintain  circulation. 
With  this  method,  the  fact  that  water  becomes  lighter  as 
its  temperature  becomes  higher  is  taken  advantage  of 
in  securing  circulation  around  the  cylinders.  The  top  of 
the  water  jacket  of  the  block  cast  cylinder  head  is  at- 
tached to  the  tojD  center  of  the  radiator,  while  the  pipe 
leading  from  the  bottom  of  that  member  is  connected 
to  a  manifold  which  supplies  cool  water  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder  jacket. 

With  a  thermo-siphon  system  it  is  imperative  that 
the  radiator  be  carried  at  such  a  height  that  the  cool 
water  will  flow  to  the  water  spaces  around  the  cylinder 
by  gravity.  As  the  water  becomes  heated  by  contact  with 
the  hot  cylinder  and  combustion  chamber  walls  it  rises 
to  the  top  of  the  cylinders,  flows  to  the  cooler,  where 
enough  of  the  heat  is  absorbed  to  cause  it  to  become  sen- 
sibly greater  in  weight.  As  the  water  becomes  cooler  it 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  radiator,  and  it  is  again  sup- 
plied to  the  water  jacket.  The  circulation  is  entirely 
automatic  and  continues  as  long  as  there  is  a  difference 
in  temperature  between  the  liquid  in  the  cooler  and  that 
in  the  jacket.  The  circulation  becomes  brisker  as  the 
engine  becomes  hotter,  and  thus  the  temperature  of  the 
cylinders  is  kept  more  nearly  to  a  fixed  point.  With  the 
thermo-siphon  system  the  cooling  liquid  is  nearly  always 
at  its  boiling  point,  whereas  if  the  circulation  is  main- 
tained by  a  pump  the  engine  will  become  cooler  at  high 
speed  and  will  heat  up  more  at  low  si3eed.  So  long  as  the 
proper  quantities  of  clean  water  are  used  in  the  radiator 
there  is  nothing  that  can  interfere  with  proper  engine 
cooling.     There  is  no  jiump  drive  to  complicate  the  con- 


^ 


Theory  of  Lubrication  91 

striiction  and  domaiid  attention.     It  is  an  ideal  coolini? 
system  for  a  car  designed  for  use  by  the  masses. 

The  radiator  cools  the  water  by  dividing  it  into  a  num- 
ber of  fine  streams  as  the  liquid  passes  from  the  upper 
portion  to  the  lower  tank  through  a  large  number  of  fine 
copper  pipes  which  are  cooled  by  air  currents  passing 
over  flanges  soldered  to  them.  A  belt-driven  fan  is  placed 
back  of  the  radiator  to  insure  a  constant  passage  of  air 
through  the  passages  between  the  radiator  tubes  at  all 
times  that  the  engine  is  running.  When  the  car  is  in 
operation,  the  air  currents  are  increased  in  value  by  added 
air  movement  due  to  natural  draft. 

Theory  of  Lubrication. — The  reason  a  lubricant  is  sup- 
])lied  to  bearing  points  will  be  easily  understood  if  one 
considers  that  these  elastic  substances  flow  between  the 
close-fitting  bearing  surfaces,  and  by  filling  up  the  minute 
depressions  in  the  surfaces  and  covering  the  high  sjjots, 
act  as  a  cushion  which  absorbs  the  heat  generated,  and 
takes  the  wear  instead  of  the  metallic  surfaces.  The 
closer  the  parts  fit  together  the  more  fluid  the  lubricant 
nuist  be  to  pass  between  their  surfaces  and  at  the  same 
time  it  must  possess  sufficient  body  so  that  it  will  not  be 
entirely  forced  out  by  the  pressure  existing  between  the 
parts.  Oils  should  have  good  adhesive,  as  well  as  cohe- 
sive, qualities.  The  former  are  necessary  so  that  the  oil 
film  will  cling  well  to  the  surfaces  of  the  bearings;  the 
latter,  so  the  oil  particles  will  cling  together  and  resist 
the  tendency  to  separation  which  exists  all  the  time  the 
bearings  are  in  operation. 

Wlien  used  for  gas  engine  lubrication,  the  oil  should 
be  capable  of  withstanding  considerable  heat  in  order 
that  it  will  not  be  vaporized  by  the  hot  portions  of  the 
cylinder.    It  should  have  sufficient  cold  test  so  that  it  will 


92  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

remain  jfluid  and  flow  readily  at  low  temperature.  Lubri- 
cant should  be  free  from  acid  or  alkalies,  which  tend  to 
produce  a  chemical  action  with  metals  and  result  in  corro- 
sion of  the  parts  to  which  they  are  applied. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  oil  be  exactly  the  proper 
quality  and  nature  for  the  purpose  intended,  and  that  it 
be  applied  in  a  positive  manner.  The  requirements  may 
be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  First — It  must  have 
sufficient  body  to  prevent  seizing  of  the  parts  to  which 
it  is  applied  and  between  which  it  is  depended  upon  to 
maintain  an  elastic  film,  and  yet  it  must  not  have  too 
much  viscosity  in  order  to  minimize  the  internal  or  fluid 
friction  which  exists  between  the  particles  of  the  lubri- 
cant itself.  Second — The  lubricant  must  not  coagulate  or 
gum,  must  not  injure  the  parts  to  which  it  is  applied, 
either  by  chemical  action  or  by  producing  injurious  de- 
posits, and  it  should  not  evaporate  readily.  Third — The 
character  of  the  work  will  demand  that  the  oil  should  not 
vaporize  when  heated  moderately,  or  thicken  to  such  a 
point  that  it  will  not  flow  readily  when  cold.  Fourth — 
The  oil  must  be  free  from  acid,  alkalies,  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble fillers  or  other  injurious  agencies.  Fifth — It  must  be 
carefully  selected  for  the  work  required  and  should  be 
a  good  conductor  of  heat. 

Derivation  of  Lubricants. — The  first  oils  which  were 
used  for  lubricating  machinery  were  obtained  from  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  sources,  though  at  the  present  time 
most  of  them  are  of  mineral  derivation.  Lubricants  may 
exist  as  fluids,  semi-fluids,  or  solids.  The  viscosity  will 
vary  from  spindle  or  dynamo  oils,  which  have  but  little 
more  body  than  kerosene,  to  the  heaviest  greases  and 
tallows.  The  most  common  solid  employed  as  a  lubricant 
is  graphite,  sometimes  termed  ''plumbago"  or  ''black 


Mediums  for  Lubrication  93 

lead."  This  substance  is  of  mineral  derivation.  Soap- 
stone  is  also  a  lubricant,  and  is  used  in  tires.  The  dis- 
advantage of  oil  of  organic  origin,  such  as  those  obtained 
from  animal  fats  or  vegetable  substances,  is  that  they 
will  absorb  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  which  causes 
them  to  thicken  or  become  rancid.  Such  oils  have  a  very 
poor  cold  test,  as  they  solidify  at  comparatively  higii 
temperatures  and  their  flashing  points  are  so  low  that  they 
cannot  be  used  at  points  where  much  heat  exists.  In  most 
animal  oils  various  acids  are  present  in  greater  or  less 
quantities,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  not  well  adapted 
for  lubricating  metallic  surfaces  which  may  be  raised  high 
enough  in  temperature  to  cause  decomposition  of  the  oils. 

Lubricants  derived  from  the  crude  petroleum  are  called 
''Oleonaphthas,"  and  they  are  a  product  of  the  process 
of  refining  petroleum  through  which  gasoline  and  kerosene 
are  obtained.  They  are  of  lower  cost  than  vegetable 
or  animal  oils,  and  as  they  are  of  non-organic  origin  they 
do  not  become  rancid  or  gummy  by  constant  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  thev  will  have  no  corrosive  effect  on  metals 
because  they  contain  no  deleterious  substances  in  their 
chemical  composition.  By  the  process  of  fractional  dis- 
tillation mineral  oils  of  all  grades  can  be  obtained.  They 
have  a  lower  cold  and  higher  flash  test,  and  there  is  not 
the  liability  of  spontaneous  combustion  that  exists  with 
animal  oils. 

The  importance  of  minimizing  friction  at  the  various 
bearing  surfaces  of  machines  to  secure  mechanical  effi- 
ciency is  fully  recognized  by  all  mechanics,  and  proper 
lubricity  of  all  parts  of  the  mechanism  is  a  very  essential 
factor  upon  which  the  durability  and  successful  operation 
of  the  motor  car  power  plant  depends.  All  of  the  moving 
members  of  the  engine  which  are  in  contact  with  other 


94  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

portions,  whether  the  motion  is  continuous  or  intermit- 
tent, of  high  or  low  velocity  or  of  rectilinear  or  continued 
rotary  nature,  should  be  provided  with  an  adequate  supply 
of  oil.  No  other  assemblage  of  mechanism  is  operated 
under  conditions  which  are  so  much  to  its  disadvantage 
as  the  motor  car,  and  the  tendency  is  toward  a  simpli- 
fication of  oiling  methods  so  that  the  supply  will  be 
ample  and  automatically  aj^plied  to  the  points  needing  it. 

In  all  machinery  in  motion  the  members  which  are  in 
contact  have  a  tendencv  to  stick  to  each  other,  and  the 
very  minute  projections  which  exist  on  even  the  smooth- 
est of  surfaces  would  adhere  to  each  other  if  the  surfaces 
were  not  kept  apart  by  some  elastic  and  unctuous  sub- 
stance. This  will  flow  or  spread  out  over  the  surfaces  and 
smooth  out  the  inequalities  existing  which  tend  to  pro- 
duce heat  and  retard  motion  of  the  pieces  relative  to 
each  other. 

How  Ford  Power  Plant  Is  Lubricated. — The  system  of 
lubrication  employed  in  the  Ford  power  plant  is  an  ex- 
cej^tionally  simple  one,  requiring  no  apparatus  other  than 
that  regularly  forming  a  part  of  the  engine.  The  con- 
struction of  the  magneto  has  been  previously  described, 
and  mention  made  of  the  way  the  magnets  are  attached 
to  the  flywheel  rim.  These  magnets  also  serve  as  a  por- 
tion of  the  lubrication  system  being  employed  to  circu- 
late the  oil.  If  one  will  refer  to  the  part  sectional  view 
at  Fig.  11,  it  will  be  apparent  that  a  series  of  troughs 
are  placed  on  the  center  line  of  each  cylinder  in  the  bot- 
tom plate,  these  being  so  arranged  that  as  the  connecting 
rods  rotate  the  big  ends  dip  into  the  troughs  and  scoop  out 
some  of  the  oil  present  in  these  members,  throwing  it 
about  the  engine  interior  and  lubricating  all  parts  ex- 
posed to  the  spray.     It  w^ill  be  evident  that  all  internal 


Hoxv  Ford  Engine  is  Oihd  95 

l)arts  of  the  engine  will  be  oiled  continuously  if  some 
means  is  provided  for  keeping  these  troughs  or  channels 
full  of  lubricant. 

This  object  is  attained  in  a  very  simple  manner  by 
filling  the  flywheel  compartment  of  the  engine  crank  case 
to  a  definite  height  which  is  indicated  by  small  drain 
cocks  placed  on  the  back  side  of  the  lower  crank  case 
compartment.  This  level  is  sufficiently  high  so  the  mag- 
nets are  partially  submerged  in  the  oil  as  the  flj'w^heel 
revolves.  It  will  be  apparent  that  considerable  oil  will 
be  scooped  up  by  the  projecting  magnets,  and  these  are 
utilized  to  lift  oil  into  a  small  funnel  attached  to  the  side 
of  the  crank  case  and  in  the  path  of  the  oil  stream.  This 
funnel  communicates  with  a  brass  tube  that  conveys  the 
stream  of  lubricating  oil  to  the  front  crank  case  compart- 
ment housing  the  timing  gears.  From  this  point  the  oil 
drains  back,  filling  the  troughs  until  they  overflow,  the 
surplus  then  flowing  back  into  the  flywheel  compartment 
of  the  crank  case.  This  system  of  lubrication  also  pro- 
vides for  thorough  lubricity  of  the  exposed  planetary 
transmission  gears  carried  in  the  gear  case,  which  really 
forms  the  rear  part  of  the  engine  crank  case. 

The  oil  is  introduced  into  the  engine  through  an  open- 
ing obtained  by  removing  the  brass  cover  of  the  breather 
pil)e.  When  the  Ford  engine  is  new  and  all  crank  case 
joints  are  tight  so  there  is  no  leakage,  the  oil  consumption 
will  be  equivalent  to  about  one  quart  per  hundred  miles 
of  car  operation.  The  makers  advise  keeping  the  oil 
level  at  a  point  about  midway  between  the  two  petcocks, 
but  how  this  can  be  determined  without  the  use  of  the 
X-ray  can  only  be  conjectured.  They  advise  that  carr^^- 
ing  the  oil  level  above  the  top  petcock  will  result  in  ex- 
cessive use  of  lubricant,  whereas  having  the  level  below 


96  The  Ford  Model  T'Car 

the  lower  petcock  will  be  apt  to  result  injuriously,  owing 
to  lack  of  lubrication.  However,  it  is  better  to  use  too 
much  oil  than  not  enough,  so  most  Ford  owners  fill  the 
flywheel  compartment  to  the  height  indicated  by  the  top 
drain  cock.  Simple  glass  gauge  fittings  may  be  procured 
from  accessory  dealers  by  which  the  height  of  oil  may 
be  accurately  gauged.  These  replace  the  lower  petcock, 
and  many  Ford  owners  find  it  desirable  to  purchase  this 
inexpensive  fitting,  as  the  level  of  the  oil  may  be  deter- 
mined at  a  glance.  During  ])ractical]y  all  the  time  that 
the  writer  had  his  car  in  o])eration,  it  was  his  rule  to 
su])}jly  one  quart  of  oil  thi'ough  the  breather  pi]oe  for 
every  five  gallons  of  gasoline  that  was  ])laced  into  the 
fuel  tank.  Then,  the  top  petcock  was  opened  until  the 
sur])lus  Inbi-icant  had  drained  out.  With  the  Ford  sys- 
tem of  lubrication  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  crank 
case  oil  plug  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  flywdieel  compartment 
and  drain  out  the  old  oil  at  least  every  five  hundred  miles, 
flushing  out  the  interior  of  flic  crank  case  thoroughly  with 
gasoline  or  kerosene  and  introducing  enough  lubricant 
after  the  oil  i)lug  had  been  replaced  to  bring  the  level 
to  tlie  i)roper  height. 

The  Ford  Muffler. — When  the  exhaust  gas  of  a  gasoline 
engine  is  discharged  into  the  open  air  directly  from  the 
valve  ports,  each  discharge  is  accompanied  by  a  sound 
resembling  a  gunshot.  p]vidently  this  would  he  very  an- 
noying to  the  i)ublic,  so  means  are  taken  to  silence  the 
exhaust  gases  before  they  are  discharged  to  the  outer 
air.  The  Ford  muffler,  wliicli  is  illustrated  at  Fig.  25, 
is  a  very  simple  assembly  tliat  silences  the  gas  by  ])er- 
mitting  it  to  expand  to  a  j)oint  where  it  is  practically 
at  atmospheric  pressuie  before  it  is  discharged  to  the  air. 
The  muffler  is  attached  to  one  of  the  chassis  side  members, 


Hoiv  Kivliaufil  Gas  Is  Silenced 


97 


and  is  connected  to  the  exhaust  rnniiifold  attached  to  tlie 
cylinder  casting'-  l)y  a  T)iece  of  steel  tubing.  The  muffler 
consists  of  two  end  castings  having  cylindrical  ledges  cast 
integrally  which  are  used  as  supports  for  the  concentiic 
tubular  members  which  divide  the  muffler  into  three  dis- 
tinct compartments.  The  gas  from  the  exhaust  pipe  passes 
fii-st  into  the  cential  com])artment,  which  is  but  slightly 
laigcr  than  the  exhaust  pipe.     A  number  of  passages  or 


Rear  Muffler  Head  ^- 


Asbestos  Covering. 


.Outer  Muffler  Shell 

Middle  Muffler  Shell 
/ Jntier  Muffler 

^g — yMufflcr  Head 
Front 


Oases  Circulate  around/ 
Expansion  Chamber 


txpanslon  Chamber 


Fig.  25. — Sectional  View  Defining  Construction  and  Method  of  Operation 
of  the  Ford  Exhaust  Gas  Silencer. 


slots  are  pierced  through  the  rear  end  of  this  chamh(;r. 
The  gas  is  discharged  through  the  slots  into  tlie  mtar- 
mediate  chamber,  ])assing  from  this  to  tlie  outer  chamber 
through  a  series  of  oi)enings  at  the  front  end  of  the  middle 
nniffler  sliell.  The  outer  iiniffl(;r  sIkjII  serves  as  a  casing 
for  the  assembly,  and  is  cov(!red  with  a  sheet  of  asbestos 
which  not  only  serves  to  muffle  th(i  sound  made  when  the 
gas  is  discbarged  into  the  muffl(!r,  but  which  also  serves 
to  keej)  the  luiat  of  the  muffler  jjrojierly  confined.  The 
gas  from  the  outer  ex})ansion  chamlxir,  which  is  formed 
by  the  space  between  the  middle  and  out(;r  muffler  shells, 
issues   to   tlie   air   through   a   discharge   pipe   cari-ied    by 


98  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

the  rear  muffler  head.  The  path  of  the  gases  is  clearly 
shown  by  following  the  arrows  through  the  various  com- 
partments. The  Ford  muffler  is  a  very  efficient  one,  re- 
ducing the  sound  of  the  exhaust  to  a  point  where  it  is 
not  objectionable,  yet  at  the  same  time  not  offering  much 
back  pressure  to  retard  the  free  outflow  of  the  gases. 
The  silencing  effect  is  obtained  by  breaking  up  the  solid 
gas  stream  from  the  exhaust  pipe  into  a  number  of  smaller 
streams,  and  permitting  these  to  expand  in  the  concentric 
muffler  chambers  before  they  reach  the  air. 


CHAPTER    III 

DETAILS  OF  THE  FORD  CHASSIS  PARTS 

Why  Clutch  is  Necessary— How  Friction  Clutches  Transmit  Power — Why 
Change  Speed  Gearing  Is  Needed— How  Ford  Planetary  Gearing 
Operates — ISIethod  of  Power  Transmission — Rear  Axle  Construction — 
The  Ford  Axle  Bearings — Purpose  of  Differential  Gear — Utility  of 
Motor  Car  Brakes — The  Ford  Steering  Gear. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  power  plant  and  its  aux- 
iliary groups  are  those  chassis  parts  which  have  to  do 
with  the  delivery  of  power  from  the  engine  crank  shaft 
to  the  rear  wheels.  These  parts  are  usually  called  the 
transmission  members,  and  while  they  are  not  apt  to  give 
much  trouble  except  to  depreciate  from  natural  wear  as 
the  car  is  used,  it  is  well  for  the  reader  to  become  familiar 
with  the  method  of  operation  and  the  relation  the  trans- 
mission parts  bear  to  the  other  chassis  components.  The 
most  important  member,  and  one  that  is  always  in  use, 
is  the  drive  shaft  which  takes  the  engine  power  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  transmission  or  change  speed  gearing 
to  the  bevel  gears  mounted  in  the  rear  axle  which  imparts 
motion  to  the  wheels. 

The  parts  comprising  the  transmission  system  are  the 
clutch,  the  change  speed  gearing,  the  drive  shaft,  bevel 
driving  gears,  and  the  axle  shafts  which  turn  the  wheels, 
these  being  carried  by  the  rear  construction.  In  consid- 
ering the  various  parts,  it  will  be  well  to  define  the  reason 
why  a  clutch  and  change  speed  gearing  are  needed  with  a 
gasoline  engine  propelled  automobile  before  describing 
the  construction  and  operation  of  the  Ford  clutch  and 

99 


100  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

planetary  gearing.  In  cars  employing  a  sliding  gear  set 
the  clutch  is  a  separate  member  from  the  change  speed 
gear,  but  in  the  Ford  it  forms  an  integral  part  of  the 
mechanism  depended  on  to  obtain  the  two  forward  speeds 
and  reverse  ratios.  The  clutch  and  change  speed  gearing 
is  mounted  in  an  extension  of  the  engine  crank  case,  this 
insuring  absolute  alignment  with  the  engine  crank  shaft. 

Why  Clutch  Is  Necessary. — In  order  to  secure  a  better 
understanding  of  the  general  requirements  of  clutching 
devices,  it  will  be  w^ell  to  consider  the  conditions  which 
make  their  use  imperative  when  an  automobile  is  propelled 
by  a  hydrocarbon  motor.  If  either  a  steam  engine  or  an 
electric  motor  are  installed  as  prime  movers,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  include  any  clutching  device  or  gear  set  be- 
tween them  and  the  driving  wheels,  and  these  members 
may  be  driven  directly  from  the  power  plant,  if  desired. 
With  either  of  the  forms  mentioned  the  powder  is  obtained 
from  a  separate  source  which  may  be  disconnected  from 
the  motor  by  the  simple  movement  of  a  throttle  valve  or 
switch  lever.  Steam  or  electric  motors  are  also  capable 
of  delivering  power  in  excess  of  their  rating,  and  are  more 
flexible  than  internal  combustion  power  plants. 

If  steam  is  the  motive  agent  it  is  generated  and  con- 
tained in  a  special  device,  as  a  boiler,  and  the  amount 
of  power  delivered  by  the  engine  to  which  the  boiler  is 
connected  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  steam  admitted 
and  its  pressure.  If  the  steam  supply  is  interrupted  en- 
tirely, the  engine  and  the  car  which  it  drives  is  brought 
to  a  stop.  When  it  is  desired  to  start  again,  a  simple 
movement  of  the  throttle-valve  lever  will  permit  the  steam 
to  flow  from  the  boiler  to  the  engine  cylinders  again,  and 
the  vehicle  is  easily  set  in  motion.  If  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  car,  the  steam  flow  is  reversed  by  a  simple 


If 7///  Clutch  is  Needed  101 

meclianieal  movement  and  the  engine  will  run  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  that  which  obtains  when  the  car  is  driven 
in  a  forward  <]irection. 

If  an  electric  motor  drives  a  vehicle,  the  electrical 
energy  is  obtained  from  a  group  of  storage  batteries. 
Wlien  these  are  fully  charged  varying  amounts  of  electric 
current  may  be  drawn  from  them  and  allowed  to  flow 
through  the  windings  of  the  field  or  armature  of  the  motor 
and  different  ratios  of  power  or  speed  obtained.  The 
vehicle  is  easily  started  by  comi)leting  the  circuit  between 
the  motor  and  the  source  of  current  and  stopped  by  in- 
terrupting the  supply  of  electrical  energy.  As  the  flow 
of  electricity  can  be  reversed  easily  by  a  switch,  the  car 
may  be  driven  backward  or  forward  at  will,  and  as  the 
speed  may  be  easily  varied  by  changing  the  value  of  the 
current  strength  there  is  no  need  of  speed  changing  or 
reversing  gears.  -        : 

When  a  gasoline  engine  is  fitted-,  conditions  are  radi- 
cally different  than  with  eitiier  a  steam  or  electric  power 
plant.  The  power  developed  depends  upon  the  number 
of  explosions  per  unit  time  and  the  energy  augments  di- 
rectly as  the  number  of  explosions  and  revolutions  of  the 
crank  shaft  increase  up  to  a  certain  point.  It  is  not 
l)ossible  to  start  a  gasoline  engine  under  full  load  be- 
cause the  power  is  obtained  by  the  combustion  of  fuel 
directly  in  the  cylinder,  and  as  there  is  no  external  source 
of  power  to  draw  from,  it  is  obvious  that  the  energy  de- 
rived depends  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  the  explosions 
follow  each  other.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  cer- 
tain cycle  of  operation  is  necessary  to  secure  gasoline- 
engine  action,  and  it  is  imperative  that  the  engine  re- 
volves freely  until  it  attains  sufficient  speed  to  supply 
the  torque  or  power  needed  to  overcome  the  resistance 


102  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

that  tends  to  prevent  motion  of  the  car  before  it  can 
be  employed  in  driving  the  vehicle. 

Then,  again,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  vehicle  be 
started  or  stopped  independently  of  the  engine.  With  a 
steam  or  electric  motor  the  vehicle  may  be  started  just 
as  soon  as  the  driving  power  is  admitted  to  the  prime 
mover,  but  with  a  gasoline  engine  it  is  customary  to  in- 
terpose some  device  between  the  engine  and  the  driving 
wheels  which  make  it  possible  to  couple  the  engine  to 
the  w^heels  or  driving  gearing  and  disconnect  it  at  will. 
The  simplest  method  of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  some 
form  of  clutching  device  which  will  lock  the  rear  wheel 
driving  shaft  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine. 

Clutch  Forms  and  Their  Requirements. — Clutch  forms 
that  have  been  applied  to  automobile  propulsion  are  usu- 
ally of  the  frictional  type,  though  some  have  been  devised 
which  dei)end  upon  hydraulic,  pneumatic,  or  magnetic 
energy.  Those  which  utilize  the  driving  properties  of 
frictional  adhesion  are  mot't  common,  and  have  proven 
to  be  the  most  satisfactory  in  practical  application.  The, 
most  important  requirement  in  a  clutch  is  that  this  device 
be  capable  of  transmitting  the  maximum  power  of  the 
engine  to  w^hich  it  is  fitted  without  any  power  loss  due 
to  slipping.  A  clutch  must  be  easy  to  operate  and  but 
minimum  exertion  should  be  required  of  the  operator. 
Wlien  the  clutch  takes  hold,  the  engine  power  should  be 
transmitted  to  the  gears  and  driving  wheels  in  a  gradual 
and  uniform  manner  or  the  resulting  shock  may  seriously 
injure  the  mechanism.  When  released  it  is  imperative 
that  the  two  portions  of  the  clutch  disengage  positively,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  continued  rotation  of  the  parts  after 
the  clutch  is  disengaged.  The  design  should  be  carefully 
considered  with  a  view  of  providing  as  much  friction 


Hoic  Friction  Clutches  Drive  Car  103 

surface  as  possible  to  prevent  excessive  slipping  and  loss 
of  power.  It  is  very  desirable  to  have  a  clutch  that  will 
be  absolutely  silent  whether  engaged  or  disengaged.  If 
the  clutch  parts  are  located  in  an  accessible  manner  it  may 
be  easily  removed  for  inspection,  cleaning,  or  repairs.  It 
is  desirable  that  adjustment  be  provided,  so  a  certain 
amount  of  wear  can  be  comj^ensated  for  without  expensive 
replacement.  A  simple,  substantial  design,  with  but  few 
operating  parts,  is  more  to  be  desired  than  a  more  com- 
plex device  which  may  have  a  few  minor  advantages,  but 
which  is  more  likely  to  cause  trouble. 

The  friction  clutch  in  its  various  efficient  types  is  tlie 
one  that  more  nearly  realizes  the  requirements  of  the  ideal 
clutch.  As  a  result  this  form  is  now  universally  recog- 
nized by  automobile  designers,,  and  all  standard  gasoline 
automobiles  utilize  some  form  of  friction  clutch  which  is 
included  with  the  planetary  speed  reduction  gearing  on 
the  Ford  car.  These  devices  are  capable  of  transmitting 
any  amount  of  power  if  properly  proportioned,  and  per- 
mit of  gradual  engagement  and  positive  disconnection. 
Most  friction  clutches  are  simple  in  form,  easily  under- 
stood, and  may  be  kept  in  adjustment  and  repair  without 
difficulty. 

How  Friction  Clutches  Transmit  Power. — To  illustrate 
the  transmission  of  power  by  the  frictional  adhesion  of 
substances  with  each  other  we  can  assume  a  simple  case 
of  two  metal  disks  or  plates  in  contact,  the  pressure  ex- 
isting between  the  surfaces  being  due  to  the  weight  of 
one  member  bearing  upon  the  other.  If  the  disks  are  not 
too  heavy,  it  will  be  found  comparatively  easy  to  turn 
one  upon  the  other,  but  if  weights  are  added  to  the  upper 
member,  a  more  decided  resistance  will  be  felt  which  will 
increase  directly  as  the  weight  on  the  top  disk,  and  con- 


104 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


seqnently  the  pressure  between  tlie  disks,  increases.  It 
may  be  possible  to  add  enough  weight  so  it  will  be  prac- 
tically impossible  to  move  one  plate  without  turning  the 
other.  It  is  patent  that  if  one  of  these  plates  was  mounted 
rigidly  on  the  engine  shaft  and  one  applied  to  the  trans- 
mission shaft  so  that  it  had  a  certain  amount'  of  axial 


Flywheel. 

Clutch  Discs. 


Clutch  Spring. 


Low  Speed  and  Reverse  Bands. 
Planetary  Gears. 


Fig.  26. — Plan  View  of  the  Ford  Planetary  Gearing  Showing  Method  of 
Carrying  Triple  Planetary  Spur  Pinion  Assemblies  and  Actuating 
the  High  Speed  Disc  Clutch  Assembly. 


I 


IVhi/  Change  Speed  Gearing  Is  Used         10.5 

freedom  and  pressure  of  contact  was  maintained  by  a 
spring  instead  of  weights,  a  combination  capable  of  trans- 
mitting power  would  be  obtained.  The  sirring  pressure 
applied  to  one  disk  would  force  it  against  the  other,  and 
one  shaft  could  not  turn  without  producing  a  correspond- 
ing movement  of  the  other.  The  Ford  clutch,  shown  at 
Fig.  26  is  a  multiple  disk  form. 

Why  Change  Speed  Gearing  is  Needed. — Those  who  are 
familiar  with  steam  or  electricity  as  sources  of  power  for 
motor  vehicles  may  not  imderstand  the  necessity  for  the 
change  speed  gearing  which  is  such  an  essential  compo- 
nent of  the  automobile  propelled  by  internal  combustion 
motors.  In  explaining  the  reason  for  the  use  of  the  clutch 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  steam  or  electric  motors 
are  very  flexible,  and  that  their  speed,  and  consequently 
the  power  derived  from  them,  could  be  varied  directly 
by  regulating  the  amount  of  energy  supplied  from  the 
steam  boiler  or  the  electric  battery,  as  the  case  might  be. 
If,  for  example,  we  compare  the  steam  engine  with  the 
explosive  type,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  power  is  pro- 
duced in  the  former  by  the  pressure  of  steam  admitted 
to  the  cylinders  as  well  as  the  quantity  and  the  speed 
of  rotation.  "When  the  engine  is  running  slowly  and  a 
certain  amount  of  power  is  needed,  more  steam  can  be 
supplied  the  cylinder,  and  practically  the  same  jDOwer 
obtained,  as  though  the  steam  pressure  was  reduced  and 
the  engine  speed  increased.  The  internal  combustion  mo- 
tor is  flexible  to  a  certain  degree,  providing  that  it  is 
operating  under  conditions  which  are  favorable  to  accel- 
erating the  motor  speed  by  admitting  more  gas  to  the 
cylinders.  There  is  a  definite  limit,  however,  to  the  power 
capacity  or  the  effective  pressure  of  the  explosion,  and 
beyond  a  certain  jioint  it  is  not  possible  to  increase  the 


106  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

power  by  supplying  vajDor  having  a  higher  i^ressure  as  is 
jiossible  with  a  steam  engine. 

In  an  explosive  motor  we  can  increase  the  power  after 
the  maximum  explosive  pressure  has  been  reached  only 
by  augmenting  the  number  of  revolutions.  Whereas  it  is 
possible  to  couple  a  steam  engine  or  an  electric  motor 
directly  to  the  shafts  driving  the  wheels,  it  is  not  possible 
to  do  this  with  gasoline  engines,  and  some  form  of  gear- 
ing must  be  introduced  between  the  motor  and  the  driving 
wheels  in  order  that  the  speed  of  one  relative  to  the 
other  may  be  changed,  as  desired,  and  the  engine  crank 
shaft  turned  at  speeds  best  adapted  to  produce  the  power 
required,  and  to  allow  the  rear  wheels  to  turn  at  speeds 
dictated  by  the  condition  of  the  roads  or  the  gradients 
on  which  the  car  is  operated.  It  is  customary  in  all  auto- 
mobiles of  the  gasoline-burning  type,  where  combustion 
takes  place  directly  in  the  cylinders,  to  interpose  change 
speed  gearing  which  will  give  two  or  more  ratios  of  speed 
between  the  engine  and  the  road  wheels.  As  it  is  not 
possible  to  reverse  the  automobile  engine  utilized  in  con- 
ventional cars,  it  is  necessary  to  add  a  set  of  gears  to  the 
gear  set  to  give  the  wheels  a  reverse  motion  when  it  is 
desired  to  back  it. 

How  Planetary  Gearing  Operates. — The  planetary  or  epi- . 
cycle  transmission  is  an  easily  operated  form  of  speed 
gear  that  has  been  very  popular  on  small  cars.  This  has 
many  features  of  merit ;  it  provides  a  positive  drive,  and 
as  the  gears  are  always  in  mesh  these  members  cannot 
be  injured  by  careless  shifting.  Individual  clutches  are 
used  for  speed  selection,  and  as  the  operation  of  the  clutch 
occurs  at  the  same  time  that  the  desired  speed  is  selected, 
any  of  the  various  speed  changes  desired  may  be  easily 
effected  by  manipulating  a  single  hand  lever  or  pedal. 


The  Ford  Phuicfar//  Gcarinf/ 


107 


108  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

The  i^lanetary  gearing  shown  at  Fig.  27  is  that  used  in 
Ford  automobiles,  and  its  operation  is  as  follows:  This 
contains  only  spur  pinions.  The  flywheel  web,  A,  serves 
as  pinion  carrier  and  driving  member,  having  three  lat- 
eral studs  secured  into  it  which  carry  triple  planetary 
pinions.  Gear  B  is  the  driven  member,  being  keyed  to  the 
hub  clutch  drum  G,  which  in  turn  is  secured  to  driven  shaft 
D.  By  applying  a  brake  band  to  drum  E,  gear  F  is  held 
stationary,  pinion  G  rolls  on  it,  and  the  smaller  pinion  H 
causes  gear  B  to  turn  slowly  in  the  same  direction  as 
pinion  carrier  A.  By  applying  a  brake  band  to  drum  I, 
gear  J  is  held  stationary,  pinion  K  rolls  on  it,  and  the 
larger  j)inion  H  turns  gear  B  slowly  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion. For  the  high  gear,  or  direct  drive,  the  friction 
clutch  locks  clutch  drum  C  to  the  engine  tail  shaft,  and 
the  entire  gear  mechanism  rotates  as  a  unit.  In  this 
mechanism  the  master  clutch,  which  provides  the  direct 
drive,  is  a  multiple-disk  form  coiiiposed  of  two  sets  of 
steel  disks,  which  are  kept  in  contact  and  proper  driving 
relation  by  means  of  a  heavy  coil^4  spring.  The  low  and 
reverse  speeds  are  obtained  in  the  conventional  manner 
by  tightening  the  external  contracting  clutch  bands,  which 
are  show^n  between  the  gearing  and  disk  clutch  in  Fig.  28. 
One  set  of  the  high  speed  clutch  plates  drive  the  drum  C, 
and  are  driven  by  the  other  set  which  are  keyed  to  the 
clutch  disk  carrier  rotated  by  the  engine  crank  shaft 
extension. 

Planetary  gearing  has  been  very  successful  when  prop- 
erly designed  and  installed,  and  its  chief  disadvantage 
is  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  provide  more  than  two  for- 
ward speeds  and  one  reverse.  For  this  reason  it  can  only 
be  adapted  to  light  cars  which  have  a  surplus  of  power  in 
the  engine  as  the  Ford.    While  such  gearing  is  not  very 


TJic  Ford  Planetarij  Gearing 


109 


Clutch  Pedal 
IJrake  Peduh 
Kivurse  Pedal 


Cluti-h  Pedal  Support  ^ 
Reverse  Pedal  Support 
Brake  Pedal  Support 


Re%"er3e  Baud 
Slow  Speed  Baud. 
Brake  Baud 


Slow  Speed  Connection 
Slow  Speed  Connection 
Lock  Nut 

Slow  Speed  Conn^tion" 
Clevis- 
Clutch  Lever  Sere 
Clutch  Lever  Screw  Nut 
Clutch  Lever 
Speed  Lever 


Controller  Shaft 


Magneto  Contact 
Trunsmisaiou  Cover 


eversePedill  Shaft 
Transmission  Band  Spring 
Keversc  Adjusting  >'ut 
Slow  Speed  Shalt 
Slow  Speed  Adjusting  Nut 
Slow  Speed  Adjusting  Screw 


rake  Adjusting  Nut 
Brake  Pedal  Shaft 
Driving  Plate  Screw 
Driving  Plate  Screw 
^     Lock  Wire 

Clutch  Finger 

Clutch  Finger  Adjusting 

Screw 

Clutch  Release  Fork 

lutch  Lever  Shaft 
Clutch  Spring 


ilaguetoCoil 


Planetary 
Pinion  Assembly 


Fly  Wheel 


Clutch  Finger 


Crank  and 
Transmission  Case 


Square  Socket 

tor  Universal  Joint  Drive 


Magneto  Magnets 


Transmission  Bands 
Clutch  Finger  Screw 

Clutch  Finger  Screw 
otter 

Trausmissiou 
Driving  Plato 

Clutch  Spring 


Fig.  28. — Phantom  View  of  the  Ford  Planetary  Gearset  Showing  the 
Control  Pedal  Assembly  at  Top.  View  of  Gearing  Partially  Disas- 
sembled Showing  Brake  Bands  and  Other  Parts  at  the  Bottom. 


110  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

efficient  on  low  and  reverse  speeds  as  considerable  power 
is  absorbed  in  fription,  on  the  high  speed  or  direct  drive 
it  is  superior  to  any  other  form  of  change-speed  gearing 
because  the  entire  assembly  is  locked  to  the  crank  shaft, 
no  gears  are  turning  idly  and  the  weight  of  the  gearing- 
serves  merely  as  an  additional  flyAvheel  member.  With 
light  cars  like  the  Ford  practically  all  roads  may  be  nego- 
tiated on  the  direct  drive  and  the  low  speed  is  very  sel- 
dom used.  Considerable  trouble  was  experienced  with 
the  early  forms  because  it  was  difficult  to  keep  oil  in  the 
case,  but  in  the  Ford  design  special  care  has  been  taken 
in  housing  the  reduction  gears  so  these  are  constantly 
oiled,  and  both  wear  and  noise,  which  were  formerly  detri- 
mental to  the  adoption  of  this  form  of  gearing  and  which 
militated  largely  against  its  general  use,  have  been  elimi- 
nated to  a  large  extent. 

Method  of  Power  Transmission. — The  power  delivered 
to  the  gear  set  from  the  motor  crank  shaft  is  taken  by 
means  of  the  universal  joint  and  propeller  shaft  to  bevel 
gearing  forming  part  of  the  rear  axle.  This  driving 
gearing  is  shown  at  Fig.  29  while  a  sectional  view  showing 
the  arrangement  of  the  rear  axle  parts  is  presented  at 
Fig.  30.  The  propeller  shaft  is  enclosed  in  a  drive  shaft 
tube  which  also  acts  as  a  torque  member  to  resist  the  ten- 
dency of  the  rear  axle  to  rotate  while  the  wheels  are  driv- 
ing the  car  or  when  the  hub  brakes  are  applied  to  stop  the 
car.  This  tube  terminates  in  a  universal  joint  casing 
made  in  the  form  of  a  ball  with  a  portion  cut  off  the  top, 
this  fitting  in  a  suitable  carrjdng  member  or  ball  seat, 
machined  in  the  back  end  of  the  transmission  case.  The 
front  end  of  the  propeller  shaft  revolves  in  a  plain  bear- 
ing, while  the  rear  end  which  carries  the  bevel  driving 
pinion  is  supported  by  a  flexible  roller  bearing.    The  bevel 


Rear  Axle  Construetiou 


111 


l)inion  meshes  with  a  large  bevel  gear,  often  called  the 
' '  ring  gear, ' '  which  is  attached  to  the  differential  housing 
in  the  manner  indicated  at  Fig.  29.  A  portion  of  the 
diff'erential  housing  is  cut  away  in  this  illustration  to 
show  the  method  of  carrying  the  differential  pinions  and 


Bevel  Gear  • 


Roller  Bearing 


Housing- 


Differential  Gears 


Fig.   29. — Cutaway  View  of  the  Ford  Rear  Axle  Differential  Housing 
Showing  Arrangement   of   Bevel   Driving   Gearing   and   Differential 


Gears. 


the  way  these  are  in  mesh  with  the  differential  gears  at- 
tached to  the  wheel  driving  axle  shafts.  Part  of  the  axle 
housing  is  also  cut  away  on  each  side  to  show  the  roller 
bearings  which  may  be  more  clearly  seen  in  the  sectional 
view  of  entire  rear  construction  at  Fig.  30.  When  the 
motor  is  operating  and  the  low  or  high  speed  is  engaged, 


112  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

the  universal  joint  and  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  attached 
turn  clockwise  when  viewed  from  the  front  of  the  car.  In 
other  words  this  shaft  revolves  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  crank  shaft  of  the  motor  though  its  speed  of  rotation 
depends  on  whether  the  low  speed  band  or  the  high  speed 
clutch  is  engaged. 

With  the  low  speed  engaged  the  engine  shaft  is  turning 
faster  than  the  drive  shaft,  though  with  the  high  speed 
clutch  transmitting  the  power  the  propeller  shaft  and  en- 
gine crank  shaft  turn  at  the  same  speed.  The  power  then 
goes  through  the  universal  joint  and  the  shaft  to  which 
the  bevel  pinion  is  attached,  from  this  to  the  large  ring 
gear  attached  to  the  differential  casing  and  from  the  dif- 
ferential mechanism  to  the  axle  shafts  connected  to  the 
road  wheels.  When  the  engine  is  turning  clockwise,  the 
large  gear  turns  forward,  as  do  the  axles  and  wheels  at- 
tached to  them,  and  as  a  result  the  car  will  move  in  a  for- 
ward direction.  When  the  reverse  motion  control  pedal 
is  depressed  and  the  reverse  friction  band  is  constricted 
around  the  reverse  drum  of  the  gearing  the  gears  pre- 
viously described  come  into  action,  thus  reversing  the 
motion  of  the  universal  joint  and  pinion  drive  shaft  caus- 
ing the  large  gear  in  the  rear  axle  to  turn  in  a  direction  op- 
posite to  that  obtained  when  either  the  high  or  low  speeds 
are  in  action  and  thus  producing  a  backward  motion  of 
the  car. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  there  is  considerable  difference 
in  the  size  of  the  drive  gears,  the  bevel  pinion  being  much 
smaller  than  the  ring  gear  attached  to  the  differential. 
This  is  done  because  the  ring  gear  must  turn  slower  than 
the  engine  crank  shaft,  as  it  would  not  be  practical  to 
rotate  the  road  wheels  at  a  speed  equal  to  that  of  the 
engine  crank  shaft  because  the  resistance  to  car  move- 


Bear  AiVJe  Construction 


113 


d  ■-   3  (B  3  C 


114  TJie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

ment  is  too  great  to  be  overcome  by  such  a  direct  appli- 
cation of  power.  Tlie  bevel  pinion  is  provided  with  eleven 
teeth  and  the  large  gear  it  drives  has  forty  teeth.  Con- 
sequently, the  driving  shaft  and  its  pinion  will  make  3Ki 
revolutions  for  every  one  of  the  large  gear  when  the 
high  speed  clutch  or  direct  drive  is  engaged.  When  the 
low  speed  is  brought  into  action  the  reduction  is  con- 
siderably increased  by  the  gears  in  the  transmission.  In 
this  case,  the  engine  crank  shaft  will  make  about  ten  revo- 
lutions to  one  of  the  rear  wheels. 

One  of  the  important  elements  of  the  driving  system 
is  the  universal  joint  which  is  a  flexible,  though  positive 
driving  coupling  that  permits  rotating  the  driving  shaft 
even  though  that  member  is  at  an  angle  with  the  engine 
crank  shaft.  This  slope  is  made  necessary  because  the 
differential  and  drive  gearing  in  the  rear  axle  are  carried 
lower  than  the  gear  set,  so  it  will  be  apparent  that  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  some  driving  coupling  that  is  capable 
of  compensating  for  this  lack  of  alignment.  The  universal 
joint  is  composed  of  three  main  parts,  two  knuckle  joints 
and  a  joint  ring.  The  ring  is  made  in  two  half  sections 
riveted  together  which  serve  as  a  bearing  for  the  male  and 
female  knuckle  joint  driving  pins.  As  will  be  noted  by 
consulting  Fig.  30,  the  male  knuckle  joint  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  has  a  squared  end  intended  to  slip  into  a  square 
machined  in  the  transmission  shaft.  The  boss  of  the  fe- 
male knuckle  joint  is  in  the  form  of  a  sleeve  formed  to 
sli^D  over  the  end  of  the  driving  shaft  and  secured  thereto 
by  a  pin  passing  through  both.  The  square  end  of  the 
male  joint  may  move  back  and- forth  in  the  transmission 
shaft  to  compensate  for  any  slight  end  movement  that  may 
be  present  as  the  universal  joint  ring  member  rocks  on 
the  knuckle  joint  loins.     The  universal  joint  is  housed  in 


Rear  Acvle  Constructiofi  115 

the  globular  member  indicated,  which  is  filled  with  lubri- 
cant to  provide  for  thorough  oiling  of  the  moving  parts. 

The  rear  construction,  as  the  entire  rear  axle  assembly 
is  called,  supports  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis  and  in  turn 
is  supported  by  the  road  wheels.  These  are  members 
somewhat  similar  in  design  to  certain  forms  of  carriage 
wheels,  the  wooden  spokes  being  mounted  between  hub 
flanges  at  the  central  part  of  the  wheel  and  forced  into 
a  wooden  felloe  band  to  which  the  tire-carrying  rim  is 
attached  at  the  outer  ends.  The  rear  wheel  flanges  are 
of  metal  and  they  are  securely  attached  to  a  central  hub 
member  which  is  bored  tapering  to  fit  the  tapered  end  of 
the  drive  axle.  The  axle  is  provided  with  a  key  which 
fits  a  kej^w^ay  in  the  hub  member  and  when  the  wheel  hub 
is  clamped  on  the  axle  taper  by  the  retention  nut  the 
wheel  cannot  turn  unless  the  axle  turns  with  it.  As  a  re- 
sult when  the  energy"  of  the  motor  is  applied  to  the  driving 
axles  through  the  medium  of  the  differential  gear  the  road 
wheels  must  rotate  with  them.  The  wheel  is  prevented 
from  backing  off  of  the  taper  by  a  suitable  clamp  nut 
which  in  turn  is  locked  in  place  by  a  split  pin  which  passes 
througli  the  axle  and  which  fits  into  slots  milled  across 
the  rad  of  the  nut.  The  rear  wheel  hubs  carry  a  pressed 
steel  brake  drum  which  is  retained  by  the  same  bolts  hold- 
ing the  wheel  assembly  together.  This  drum  serves  to 
house  the  emergency  brake  shoes  and  their  operating 
cams.  The  rear  construction  therefore  consists  of  three 
casings  or  housing  members,  one  serving  to  carry  the 
propeller  shaft  while  the  other  two  are  bolted  together 
to  form  the  housing  for  th6  axle  shafts  carr5T.ng  the  wheels 
and  the  differential  and  driving  gear  mechanism. 

The  Ford  Axle  Bearings. — Careful  study  of  the  cutaway 
view  of  the  diff'erential  housing  at- Fig.  29  and  of  the  rear 


116 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


axle  assembly  at  Fig.  30  will  show  that  the  various  driv- 
ing shafts  are  supported  by  anti-friction  bearings  at  all 
13oints  subjected  to  heavy  loads.  For  example,  the  clriving 
shaft  is  supported  at  the  universal  joint-end  by  a  plain 
bushing  which   answers  the  purpose   because   it  serves 


STTEL  SLEEVE 


THRUST 
WflSHEK 


■.B/iLL  7fEr/^///£^ 


Fig.  31. — Types  of  Anti-Friction  Bearings  Used  in  the  Ford  Car.  A — 
Cup  and  Cone  Tj^e  Angular  Contact  Ball  Bearings  Similar  to  Those 
Used  in  the  Front  Wheels.  B — Hyatt  Flexible  Roller  Bearing.  C — 
Special  Ball  Bearings  for  Resisting  End  Thrust  Only. 


merely  to  guide  the  shaft  and  is  not  subject  to  any  great 
stress.  At  the  pinion  end,  however,  the  load  is  greater 
and  a  plain  bearing  would  wear  out  veiy  quickly,  besides 
consuming  a  lot  of  power  all  the  time  it  was  in  use.  The 
pinion  end  of  the  driving  shaft,  therefore,  is  fitted  mth 
a  large  flexible  roller  bearing  and  a  ball  thrust  bearing. 


^luti- friction  Bearings  117 

The  fnnction  of  this  thrust  bearing  is  to  compensate  for 
the  tendency  to  end  movement  of  the  driving  shaft  which 
results  because  of  the  angularity  of  the  faces  of  the  bevel 
driving  gearing.  When  the  motor  is  propelling  the  car,- 
the  driving  reaction  on  the  angular  teeth  of  the  ring  gear 
produces  a  decided  end  thrust  against  the  pinion  shaft. 
The  roller  bearing  which  is  utilized  to  take  care  of  the 
radial  load  or  to  prevent  side  movement  of  the  shaft 
is  not  capable  of  withstanding  this  end  thrust  so  a  special 
ball  thrust  bearing  must  be  provided  to  assist  the  roller 
bearing  to  preserve  the  proper  relation  between  the  driv- 
ing pinion  and  the  ring  gear.  All  wheels  of  the  Ford 
car  are  carried  by  anti-friction  bearings.  The  front  wheels 
are  mounted  on  cup  and  cone  ball  bearings  of  the  general 
type  shown  at  A,  Fig.  31,  their  practical  application 
being  shown  at  Fig.  32.  This  form  of  bearing  consists  of 
a  pressed  steel  cup  member  forced  into  the  hub  shell  cast- 
ing and  a  cone  member  fitting  the  axle  spindle  tightly. 
The  space  between  the  cup  and  cone  is  filled  with  steel 
balls  which  carry  the  load  with  a  rolling  motion  and  thus 
have  much  less  friction  than  a  plain  bearing  in  which  the 
surfaces  must  slide  over  each  other. 

The  diiferential  mechanism  and  the  wheel  end  of  the 
axle  utilize  roller  bearings  of  the  general  form  shown  at 
Fig.  31,  D.  This  bearing  consists  of  a  cage  carrying  a  num- 
ber of  spiral  rollers  which  roll  on  the  steel  shaft  but  which 
do  not  bear  directly  against  the  housing  tube  as  a  steel 
sleeve  is  introduced  to  form  a  track  for  the  rollers  to  run 
on.  The  ball  thrust  bearing  which  is  used  at  the  front  end 
of  the  roller  bearing  supporting  the  pinion  end  of  the  pro- 
il  peller  shaft  is  of  the  general  fonn  shown  at  Fig.  31,  C. 
•  In  this  bearing  the  raceways  have  grooved  ball  tracks 
fonned  on  their  faces,  the  balls  being  placed  between  them 


118 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


in  such  a  way  that  the  bearing  is  suitable  only  to  take  loads 
■coming  from  a  direction  approximately  parallel  with 
the  driving  shaft.  These  loads  are  called  end  thrusts 
•while  loads  applied  at  right  angles  to  the  driving  shafts, 
as,  for  example,  the  weight  load  on  the  roller  bearings  at 
the  wheel  end  of  the  axle  are  termed  radial  loads.    As  a 


OileK 

Spindle  Bolt 


End  of  Front  Axle 


Spindle  Body  Bushing . 


Spindle 
Bushing 


Castle  Nut 


Cotter  Pin 


Spohe 
HuO  Bolt 
Felt 
Hub  Flange 

all  Race 
Vanadium  Steel 

Spindle 
Hub  Casing 
Grease  Chamber 
Ball  Bearing 
Adjusting  Cone 
Loch  Nut 
Hub  Cap 
Cotter  Key 
Ball  Race 

tationary  Cone 
Ball  Bearing 
Ball  Retainer 
Dust  Ring 


Fig.  32. — Sectional  View  of  Ford  Front  Wheel  Hub  Showing  Method  of 
Installing  Cup-  and  Cone-  Type  Ball  Bearings. 


roller  bearing  consumes  less  power  than  a  plain  bearing 
and  as  they  are  more  enduring  and  require  less  attention 
as  well  as  being  inexpensive,  the  entire  axle  and  differen- 
tial assembly  is  carried  by  roller  bearings. 

Each  axle  shaft  revolves  in  two  roller  bearings,  one 
being  placed  near  each  side  of  the  differential  and  one  at 
each  of  the  outer  ends  of  the  drive  axle  housing  near  the 
wheel.  The  roller  bearing  consists  of  a  group  of  hardened 
steel  rollers  in  the  form  of  close  wound  coil  springs  which 


Rear  Aoole  Bearings  119 

are  prevented  from  coming  in  contact  with  each  other 
by  a  cage  or  retainer  which  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  31,  B. 
It  will  be  apparent  that  the  outer  bearings  or  those  at 
the  wheel  end  of  the  axle  carry  practically  all  of  the  radial 
load  due  to  car  weight  and  driving  strains.  To  com- 
pensate for  end  thrust  on  the  wheel  drive  axles,  such  as 
is  present  when  the  wheels  skid,  thinist  bearings  are 
provided  at  each  side  of  the  differential  gear  case.  The 
axle  shafts  cannot  move  outward  because  they  are  securely 
keyed  to  the  differential  gear  members,  these  transferring 
any  of  the  thrust  load  to  babbit  metal  rings  carried  at 
each  side  of  the  differential  housing  which  in  turn  are 
sandwiched  in  between  steel  thrust  plates  interposed  be- 
tween the  axle  housing  and  the  babbit  ring  on  one  side 
and  the  differential  case  and  the  babbit  ring  on  its  other 
side.  The  function  of  the  radius  rods  which  extend  from 
the  ends  of  the  axle  shaft  housing  to  the  flanged  fitting 
back  of  the  ball  joint  is  to  strengthen  the  entire  rear  axle 
construction  as  they  form  a  triangle  having  the  apex  at 
the  universal  joint  end.  Any  tendency  of  either  end  of  the 
axle  housing  to  move  backwards  or  forwards  or  for  the 
housing  enclosing  the  driving  shaft  to  twist  or  bend  is 
corrected  by  these  rods. 

Purpose  of  Differential  Gear. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant yet  inconspicuous  elements  of  any  fonn  of  auto- 
mobile driving  system  is  the  differential  gear,  but  as  this 
is  usually  placed  at  a  point  where  it  is  not  easily  seen  by 
the  motorist  and  as  but  very  little  trouble  is  experienced 
from  this  mechanism,  many  owners  of  cars  are  not  aware 
of  its  existence  and  do  not  realize  the  important  work 
performed  by  this  relatively  simple  component.  With- 
out a  differential  gear  it  would  be  difficult  to  control  the 
machine  when  driving  around  corners,  so  this  really  per- 


120  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

forms  an  important  function  with  both  steering  and 
driving  systems. 

When  turning  corners  with  any  four-wheel  vehicle  the 
outer  wheels  must  turn  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed  than  the 
inner  ones  because  they  are  describing  a  larger  arc  of  the 
circle.  The  more  sharply  the  vehicle  is  turned  the  greater 
the  difference  in  velocity  between  the  inner  and  outer 
wheels.  In  a  horse-drawn  conveyance  all  the  wheels  are 
independent  of  each  other  and  may  all  revolve  at  different 
speeds  if  necessary,  without  interfering  with  each  other 
or  impairing  the  action  of  the  conveyance.  In  an  automo- 
bile different  conditions  prevail  because  while  the  front 
wheels  are  usually  independent  of  each  other,  the  driv- 
ing wheels  must  be  connected  together  so  that  each  will 
receive  its  share  of  the  energy  produced  by  the  motor  and 
will  perform  its  quota  of  the  work  incidental  to  propelling 
the  vehicle. 

In  order  to  permit  one  of  the  driving  wheels  to  turn 
at  a  lower  speed  than  its  mate  in  rounding  a  corner  the 
balance  or  differential  gear  is  used.  Its  simplest  applica- 
tion is  sho^^^l  at  Fig.  33.  From  this  it  is  patent  that  the 
driving  axle  is  split  in  the  center  and  that  the  wheels  are 
mounted  on  and  driven  by  distinct  axle  shafts.  (See  Fig. 
30.)  At  the  inner  end  of  each  shaft  a  bevel  gear  is  carried, 
these  being  firmly  secured  to  the  axles  so  they  revolve  with 
them.  The  main  bevel-driven  gear,  which  is  actuated  by 
the  driving  pinion  turned  by  the  engine,  is  mounted  in- 
dependent of  the  axles  and  is  coupled  to  them  by  means 
of  small  bevel  pinions  which  are  applied  so  that  they  will 
drive  the  gears  on  the  axle  shafts.  Assuming  that  all 
the  gears  are  in  mesh,  as  outlined,  and  that  power  is  be- 
ing applied  to  the  driven  gear,  and  that  the  resistance  to 
traction  is  the  same  at  both  rear  wheels,  the  entire  as- 


Differential  Gear  miction 


121 


sembly  comprised  of  driven  gear,  the  differential  pinions 
attached  to  it  and  the  axle  shafts  revolve  as  a  unit. 

If  the  resistance  against  the  driving  wheels  varies  so 
one  wheel  tends  to  revolve  faster  than  the  other,  the  dif- 
ferential pinions  will  not  only  tnrn  around  on  the  studs 
on  which  they  are  mounted,  but  at  the  same  time  will  run 


Differential 
Pinions 


Driving  Pinion 


-Axle  Shaft  No.  1 


'Gear  No,  1 


-Differential 
Pinion 


Driven  Gear 


^Gear  No.2 
lAxle  Shaft  No.2 


Fig.  33. — Simplified  Diagram  to  Accompany  Explanation  of  Differential 

Gear  Action. 


around  the  gears  on  the  axle  shafts,  because  the  bevel 
driven  gear  carrying  the  studs  on  which  the  differential 
pinions  revolve  moves  forward.  When  turning  a  corner  the 
outer  wheel  must  turn  so  much  faster  than  the  inner  mem- 
ber that  it  is  just  the  same  as  though  one  of  the  wheels  was 
held  stationary  and  the  other  turned.  If  both  wheels  are 
turning  forward  at  the  same  speed,  the  differential  pinions 
remain  stationary  and  act  simply  as  a  lock  which  forms  a 
driving  connection  between  gear  No,  1  on  axle  shaft  No, 
1  and  gear  No.  2  on  axle  shaft  No.  2.    This  will  mean  that 


122  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

both  wheels  must  turn  in  the  same  direction  as  long  as 
the  work  is  uniformly  distributed.  Just  as  soon  as  the 
resistances  are  unequal  the  differential  pinions  will  turn 
on  their  supporting  studs  and  one  member  may  turn  at 
comparatively  slow  speed  while  the  other  revolves  at  a 
much  faster  rate.  The  action  of  the  differential  pinions 
may  be  clearly  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  33  and 
giving  due  consideration  to  the  following  principles.  The 
same  resistance  at  the  point  of  contact  between  the  driv- 
ing wheels  and  the  ground  prevents  the  pinions  from  re- 
volving on  their  own  studs,  and  in  this  case  they  are  carried 
around  by  the  supporting  members  and  the  ring  gear.  If 
the  resistance  upon  axle  shaft  No.  1  is  greater  than  that 
on  axle  shaft  No.  2,  the  ring  gear  will  rotate  forward  with 
the  wheel  offering  the  least  resistance  and  the  differential 
pinions  will  turn  on  their  studs  and  ran  over  the  surface 
of  the  gear  which  tends  to  remain  stationary,  this  being 
the  one  against  which  there  is  the  greatest  resistance. 
The  differential  pinions  can  thus  turn  independently  of 
one  gear  wheel  and  run  over  its  surface  without  turning  it, 
and  at  the  same  time  act  as  a  clutching  member  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  on  the  other  gear  and  axle  to  carry  them  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  ring  gear  and  at  a  ratio  of  speed 
which  \d\\  depend  upon  the  difference  in  resistance  be- 
tween the  driving  members  and  the  ground. 

Utility  of  Motor-Car  Brakes. — One  of  the  most  important 
of  the  components  of  the  motor-car  controlling  system  is 
usually  carried  with  and  forms  part  of  the  rear  construc- 
tion, this  being  the  braking  means  which  is  utilized  to 
bring  the  vehicle  to  a  stop  when  it  is  desired  to  arrest 
forward  or  backward  motion.  It  will  be  evident  that  in 
a  horse-drawn  vehicle  the  animal  drawing  it  can  be  used 
as  brake,  but  that  in  any  fomi  of  self-propelling  convey- 


JJtilitij  of  Brakes  123 

ance  it  is  essential  that  some  means  of  stopping  be  in- 
eluded  in  the  construction.  Even  if  the  clutch  was  oper- 
ated in  such  a  way  that  the  motor  was  disconnected  from 
the  driving  wheels  the  conveyance  would  continue  to  move 
because  it  had  acquired  a  certain  momentum  which  would 
increase  in  value  with  the  weight  of  the  car  and  the  speed 
at  which  it  was  driven. 

There  are  three  brakes  provided  on  the  Ford  chassis, 
one  of  these  being  a  service  brake  acting  on  the  transmis- 
sion gear,  the  other  two  being  emergency  members  acting 
on  the  drums  carried  by  the  rear  wheels.  The  service  or 
transmission  brake  is  clearly  shown  in  the  view  at  the  top 
of  Fig.  28  in  connection  with  its  operating  pedal  and  is 
also  outlined  at  the  bottom  of  the  same  illustration  which 
shows  the  gearing  when  the  top  portion  of  the  gear  case 
is  removed  to  expose  the  three  transmission  bands.  The 
transmission  brake  is  the  one  normally  used  when  driving 
the  car  and  is  operated  by  the  right  hand  pedal  of  the 
control  assembly  which  is  marked  B.  AMien  the  pedal 
is  pushed  forward  it  constricts  an  asbestos  fabric 
lined  brake  band  around  the  drum  that  also  forms  the 
casing  for  the  multiple  disk  clutch  assembly.  As  this 
drum  is  part  of  the  assembly  to  which  the  propeller  shaft 
is  attached  and  as  this  in  turn  controls  the  rear  wheels 
through  the  medium  of  the  bevel  pinion  carried  at  its 
lower  end,  whenever  the  transmission  assembly  is  gripped 
by  this  brake  band  it  will  also  retard  the  movement  of  the 
rear  wheels  and  if  the  brake  pedal  is  pushed  tightly  enough 
the  friction  will  be  so  great  that  the  rear  wheels  cannot 
turn  and  must  come  to  rest  even  on  a  steep  incline.  This 
is  called  the  ''service  brake"  because  it  is  more  gener- 
ally used  than  the  hand  operated  or  emergency  brake  act- 
ing directly  on  the  rear  wheel  drums. 


•^;iv^mmim 


124  Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

The  emergency  brakes  are  of  the  type  shown  at  Fig. 
34.  These  consist  of  a  pair  of  semicircular  cast  iron 
shoe  members  held  together  against  an  anchorage  pin  and 
an  expanding  cam  by  coil  springs  as  shown.  The  diameter 
of  the  circle  formed  by  these  two  metal  shoes  is  slightly 
less  than  the  inside  diameter  of  the  brake  drum  when  the 


Coil  Spring 
Hub  Brake  Cam 


Axle  Shaft 
Hub  Brake  Shoe 


Axle  Housing  Cap 
Hub  Key 


,Hub  Brake  Drum 


"WTieel 


Fig.  34. — End  View  of  Ford  Rear  Axle  with  Wheel  Removed  to  Show 
Emergency  Brake  Construction. 


brake  is  not  in  use.  If  the  hub  brake  cam  is  rocked, 
however,  so  that  instead  of  lying  flat  it  is  moved  at  such 
an  angle  that  the  brake  shoes  are  spread  apart  they  will 
grip  the  internal  periphery  of  the  pressed  steel  brake 
drum,  retarding  or  entirely  stopping  the  movement  of  the 
wheels,  depending  upon  the  pressure  applied  at  the  end  of 
the  hand  lever  and  the  movement  of  the  actuating  cam. 
As  soon  as  the  pressure  is  released  the  coil  springs  bring 


p 


Steering  Gear  Action  125 

tlie  brake  shoes  out  of  contact  with  the  drum  and  permit 
free  rotation  of  the  wheel. 

The  brake  actuating  cams  are  controlled  by  small 
levers  which  are  connected  with  smaller  members  on  the 
ends  of  the  control  shaft  which  is  worked  by  the  hand 
lever.  Rods  are  utilized  to  join  these  levers,  these  being 
guided  by  clips  secured  to  the  radius  rods.  AMien  the 
hand  lever  is  pulled  toward  the  operator  or  the  rear  of 
the  machine  it  moves  the  controller  shaft  and  rods  forward 
and  pulls  the  cam  operating  levers  so  these  spread  the 
brake  shoes  apart.  The  emergency  brake  linkage  is  inter- 
connected with  the  clutch  actuating  pedal  so  when  the 
handle  is  placed  in  a  certain  position  the  clutch  will  be  dis- 
engaged but  the  brakes  will  not  be  brought  into  action  until 
a  further  movement  of  the  hand  lever  takes  place.  The 
handle  may  be  locked  in  any  desired  position  by  a  simple 
ratchet  and  pawl  arrangement  at  its  lower  end.  This  is 
a  good  feature  as  the  emergency  brakes  may  be  applied  to 
}irevent  the  car  from  moving  when  the  motor  is  being 
cranked  or  when  it  is  left  unattended  on  a  grade.  The 
service  brake  may  be  operated  at  the  same  time  as  the 
emergency  brakes  are,  if  desired,  though  it  is  only  on  very 
steep  hills  that  both  brakes  can  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  Ford  Steering-  Gear. — The  manner  in  which  the 
front  wheels  are  carried  by  movable  steering  spindle  mem- 
bers has  been  clearly  described  in  the  first  chapter,  as  was 
the  linkage  by  which  the  two  steering  knuckles  are  caused 
to  move  simultaneously  when  the  drag  link  connecting 
the  front  axle  with  the  steering  gear  is  moved  by  the 
hand  wheel.  It  was  explained  that  the  steering  arm  at 
the  lower  portion  of  the  steering  gear  was  moved  by 
the  hand  wheel  carried  at  the  top  of  the  steering  column 
and  shown  at  Fig.  35,  A.     The  steering  post  is  a  metal 


126 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Steering  Gear- 
Spider 


Spark  Lever - 


Steering  Gear  Case 


Steering  Wheel 


Steering  Gear 
Wheel  N.ut 


ijllf   -Throttle  Lev.er 
Quadrant 


Spark  Lever 


Steering  Gear 
Drive  Pinion - 


Spark  Quadrant 


Steering  Gear 
Internal  Gear  Case 


Throttle  Lever 


Steering  Gear 
Pinions  Pin 


Steering  Gear 
Pinions 


Top  of  Steering 
Gear.Post 

Throttle  Quadrant 


Fig.  35. — Top  View  of  the  Ford  Steering  Gear  at  A  Showing  Steering 
Wheel  and  Motor  Speed  Controlling  Levers.  Planetary  Reduction 
Gearing  is  Depicted  at  B  which  Shows  Gear  Compartment  with 
Cover  Removed. 


rod  carried  inside  of  the  column  which  is  capable  of  being 
moved  a  certain  number  of  degrees  to  rock  the  steering 
arm,  this  being  limited  by  the  travel  of  the  front  wheels. 
The  steering  column  is  attached  to  the  dash  and  is  set  at 
such  an  angle  that  the  hand  wheel  is  brought  in  a  con- 


Steering  Gear  Action  127 

vonient  position  for  the  operator.  The  steering  post  is 
housed  in  a  metal  tube  having  an  inside  diameter  suffi- 
ciently large  to  permit  of  free  rotation  of  the  steering 
post  and  also  to  carry  the  spark  and  throttle  actuating 
rods  which  are  worked  by  levers  placed  below^  the  steering 
wheel  in  a  position  convenient  for  the  operator.  The 
steering  wheel  consists  of  a  metal  spider  having  four 
arms  which  tenninate  at  the  oval  section  rim  which  is  of 
wood.  These  arms  converge  to  a  boss  which  forms  the 
center  of  the  steering  wheel,  a  hole  being  machined  in  this 
boss  so  that  the  wheel  is  a  tight  fit  on  the  member  to  which 
it  is  attached  by  key  and  retention  nut. 

The  Ford  steering  gear  differs  radically  from  the  con- 
ventional forms  and  is  a  patented  design.  The  reduction 
gears  which  permit  of  a  greater  degree  of  hand  wheel 
movement  than  of  the  steering  arm  are  located  at  the 
top  of  the  steering  column  instead  of  at  the  bottom  as  in 
most  other  cars.  Whereas  the  worm  gear  reduction  is 
jDopular  on  other  types  the  Ford  gearing  operates  on 
the  epicyclic  or  planetary  principle.  The  gearing  is 
carried  in  a  compartment  immediately  under  the  steering 
wheel  which  has  a  removable  cover  to  permit  of  examining 
the  gears  which  require  but  little  attention  other  than 
keeping  the  compartment  filled  with  grease.  The  con- 
struction of  this  gearing  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  35,  B. 
Four  gears  of  the  external  spur  foim  are  used,  one  of 
these  being  in  the  center  while  three  surround  this  mem- 
ber, being  carried  by  studs  secured  to  a  triangular  plate 
at  the  top  of  the  steering  post.  The  casing  is  provided 
with  teeth  on  its  inner  periphery  so  that  it  is  an  internal 
spur  gear.  The  three  outer  gears  are  in  mesh  with  this 
as  well  as  the  central  member  to  which  the  steering  wheel 
is  attached.    When  the  wheel  is  rotated  it  turns  the  center 


128  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

pinion  which  causes  the  other  three  pinions  attached  to  a 
steering  column  to  rotate  also.  When  the  steering  wheel 
is  turned  to  the  right  the  three  outer  gears  are  turned  in 
the  opposite  direction  but  they  are  restrained  by  the  in- 
ternal gear  case  in  such  a  way  that  the  top  of  the  steering 
post  to  which  they  are  fastened  moves  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  hand  wheel  but  travels  slower.  This  provides 
a  certain  amount  of  leverage  which  makes  it  easy  for  the 
operator  to  steer  the  car  even  under  unfavorable  road 
conditions.  The  spark  and  throttle  levers  may  be  set  at 
any  desired  position  because  they  work  on  fixed  cjuad- 
rants  attached  to  the  steering  column.  The  spark  and 
throttle  control  levers  do  not  turn  with  the  steering  wheel. 

Construction  of  Ford  Tires. — The  most  common  fonn  of 
tire,  and  that  used  on  Ford  automobiles,  is  composed  of 
a  hollow  endless  rubber  ring  or  tube  of  circular  section 
filled  with  air  and  protected  from  wear  by  means  of  an 
outer  shoe  or  casing.  The  use  of  air  under  compression 
provides  a  very  resilient  medium  for  supporting  the 
vehicle,  and  of  the  various  forms  of  rubber  tires  the  pneu- 
matic form  is  the  one  that  is  the  most  desirable  for 
pleasure  cars.  The  development  of  the  modern  automo- 
bile may  be  attributed  largely  to  the  advances  made  in 
pneumatic-tire  construction,  as  these  members  made  it 
possible  to  drive  automobiles  at  high  speeds  over  rough 
road  surfaces  without  stressing  the  mechanism  unduly  or 
causing  discomfort  to  the  passengers.  The  Ford  front 
tires  are  30"  x  3",  the  rear  ones  30''  x  3>4".  These  are 
economical  as  they  are  easy  to  buy  and  give  excellent 
mileage  if  the  car  is  driven  carefully. 

The  pneumatic  tire  of  the  present  day  is  invariably  of 
the  double-tube  type  and  is  composed  of  two  members,  the 
inner  tube  and  the  shoe  or  carcass.    The  inner  member  is 


Pneiimafic  Tire  Construction 


129 


utilized  to  retain  the  air  and  is  made  of  a  very  pure 
rubber  or  resilient  rubber  composition  with  walls  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  for  cars  of  average  weight. 


Tread 


PaddinE 


Breaker  Strips 


Felloe  - 


Rim  Channel 


"Valve  Inside 


-Valve  Cap 


\^ 


Fig.  36. — Sectional  View  of  Standard  Clincher  Double  Tube  Pneumatic 
Tire  Such  as  Used  on  Ford  Cars. 


AVhile  this  tube  is  very  elastic  and  is  airtight,  it  would  not 
be  strong  enough  or  have  adequate  resistance  to  be  run 
directly  in  contact  with  the  road  surface;  therefore  it  is 
necessary  to  protect  it  by  a  shoe  composed  of  layers  of 
fabric  and  rubber  composition.    The  shoe  member  is  pro- 


130 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Valve  Closed 


-Ihreads  for  Cap 

"Rubber  Packinj 
-Valve  Seat 
Air  Vent- 


-Spring — 


-Valve  Stem- 


-Valve  Stem  Guide- 


'ire  Valve  Ster 


Valve  Open 


rig.  37. — Sectional  View  Showing  Construction  of  Standard  Schrader 
Universal  Check  Valve  For  Introducing  Air  to  Pneumatic  Tire  Inner 
Tubes.  This  is  Utilized  In  PracticaUy  All  Tires  of  American  Manu- 
facture. 


Pneumatic  Tire  Confii ruction  131 

v-icled  with  beads  on  its  inner  periphery  designed  to  inter- 
lock with  the  rim  channel,  as  shown  on  Fig.  36.  The  main 
portion  of  the  outer  casing  is  composed  of  five  or  more 
layers  of  a  Sea  Island  cotton  fabric  ' '  f rictioned "  with 
high-grade  rubber  composition.  This  is  forced  into  the 
mesh  of  the  cloth  by  machinery  so  the  fabric  will  be  practi- 
cally waterproof  and  will  join  intimately  with  other  plies 
by  a  process  of  vulcanization  when  the  shoe  is  cured  after 
it  is  built  up.  Outside  of  the  fabric  body  a  layer  of  a  very 
resilient  rubber,  approximately  of  crescent  form,  known 
as  the  padding,  is  provided  to  give  a  certain  degree  of 
elasticity.  On  top  of  this  strips  of  heavy  fabric  called  the 
*' breaker  strip"  are  interposed  to  oifer  a  certain  degree 
of  resistance  to  any  sharp  object  that  might  penetrate 
the  tread  and  go  through  the  padding  and  into  the  fabric 
body  if  the  breaker  strips  were  not  interposed  to  deflect 
the  puncturing  object  to  one  side. 

The  tread  is  the  part  of  the  tire  that  is  subjected 
to  the  greatest  stress  as  it  must  resist  the  abrading  in- 
fluence of  the  road  and  when  the  tire  is  used  on  the  rear 
wheels,  the  wearing  eifect  of  the  friction  produced  by  the 
tractive  effort  which  exists  at  the  point  of  contact  be- 
tween the  driving  member  and  the  ground.  The  tread  is 
of  very  tough  rubber  composition  and  differs  from  the 
material  used  as  padding  or  for  the  inner  tube  in  that  it 
does  not  possess  a  very  great  degree  of  elasticity.  This 
quality  is  sacrificed  for  that  of  greater  strength  and  re- 
sistance to  wear,  which  is  more  essential  at  this  point. 

The  air  is  introduced  in  the  tire  through  a  simple  form 
of  automatic  valve  which  is  securely  attached  to  the  inner 
tube.  As  the  inner  tube  becomes  distended  by  the  air 
pumped  into  it,  it  forces  the  beads  of  the  tire  outward  and 
clinches  the  shoe  so  firmly  in  the  rim  channel  that  it  will 


132  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

be  impossible  to  dislodge  it  without  the  use  of  special 
tire  irons,  and  then  only  when  the  air  pressure  is  relieved 
from  the  inner  tube.  A  detailed  view  of  the  valve  stem  in 
the  open  and  closed  positions  is  shown  at  Fig.  37  and  the 
construction  of  this  simple  fitting  can  be  easily  under- 
stood. The  valve  is  held  against  its  seat  by  a  tension 
spring  and  will  only  open  when  the  valve  stem  is  depressed 
by  the  hand  or  from  the  pressure  of  the  air  forced  against 
it  from  a  pump  when  it  is  desired  to  inflate  the  tire.  While 
the  air  pressure  from  the  pump  will  be  sufficient  to  force 
the  valve  from  its  seat,  the  air  jDressure  from  the  inside  of 
the  tire  only  serves  to  hold  it  more  firmly  in  place.  Com- 
plete instructions  for  the  manipulation,  care  and  repair 
of  Ford  tires  is  given  in  the  next  chapter. 


FRONT 


WHEN  STARTING.ENGINE,  SPARK  LEVER 
IS  FULLY  RETARDED.  GAS  LEVER  OPENED 
FOUR  OR  FIVE  NOTCHES. 


FOR  SPEED  OP  TEN  M 
GEAR  LEAVE  SPARK 
OPEN  GAS  TWO  OR  TI 


POSITION  OP  SPARK  AND  GAS  LEVERS 
^  FOR  RUNNING  ENGINE  WHEN  NOT  DRIVING 
CAR.  THIS  IS  PROPER  LEVER  PLACING 
FOR  IDLING  AND  COASTING 


FOR  SPEED  OF  TWENTY 
GEAR  LEAVE  SPARK  A 
OPEN  GAS  FIVE  NOTCHI 


FOR  STARTING  CAR  ON  LOW  SPEED  ADVANCE 
SPARK  FIVE  NOTCHES.  OPEN  GAS  LEVER  FOUR 
OR.PIVE  NOTCHES. 


FOR  SPEED  OF  T 
ADVANCE  SPAR 
GAS  SEVEN  OR  : 


Fig.  38.     Chart  Showing  Positions  of  Engine  Control  Levers  on  Steering  Post  Qu; 

May  Vary  Slightly 


ER  HOUR  ON  HIGH 
NCBD  FIVE  NOTCHES, 
OTCHES. 


FOR  MAXIMUM  SPEED  ADVAIIOE  SEAKK 
AND  (.^AH  A^'FAR  as  THBY.VriLL  GO. 


PER  HOUR  ON  HIGH 
ED  FIVE  NOTCHES. 


FOR  HILL  CLIMBING  ON  LOW  GEAR  ADVANCE 
SPARK  FIVE  OR  SIX  NOTCHES,  OPEN  GAS  AS 
NEEDED  •  DO  NOT  RACE  ENGINE. 


SPARK 


MILES  PER  HOUR 
3N  NOTCHES,  OPEN 
NOTCHES.  " 


FOR  HILL  CLIMBING  ON  HIGH  GEAR  RETARD 
SPARK  SO  IT  WILL  BE  ADVANCED  ONLY  TWO 
•OR  THREE  NOTCHES.  OPEN  GAS  TO  EXTREME. 
AS  SOON  AS  ENGINE  BEGINS  TO  LABOR  -PUT 
IN  LOW  SPEED  AND  SET  LEVERS  AS  ABOVE. 


5  for  Various  Conditions  oi  Car.Operation. 
Serent  Ford  Cars. 


These  are  the  Average  Positions  and 


L 


CHAPTER  IV 

DEIVIXG   AND    MAINTENANCE   OF    FORD    CARS 

Steps  Before  Startiug  the  Eugiue — How  to  Start  the  Ford  Motor— 
Controlliiio:  P\>nl  Cars — G«Mieral  Driviiig  Instructions — Suggestions 
for  Oiling — \\iiiter  Care  of  Automobiles — The  Ford  Gas  Lighting 
System — Electric-  Lighting  for  Ford  Cars — Tools  and  Supplies  for 
Pneumatic  Tire  Repair — ^Tire  Manipulation  Hints — Tire  Repair 
and  Maintenance — Tools  for  Ford  Cars — A  Typical  Engine  Stop 
Analyzed — Conditions  That  Cause  Failure  of  the  Ignition  System 
— Common  Defects  in  Fuel  Systems — Faults  in  Oiling  and  Cooling 
Systems — Adjusting  Transmission — Adjusting  Loose  Front  Wheel? — 
What  to  Do  When  Rear  Brakes  Do  Not  Hold. 

Theee  is  no  jjoiiit  in  connection  with  automobiles  that 
should  be  covered  more  completely  than  that  of  general 
operation  and  maintenance.  Even  if  the  motorist  does  not 
intend  to  repair  his  own  car  he  should  be  able  to  care  for  it 
intelligently  and  to  locate  the  various  troubles  that  are 
apt  to  materialize  while  the  car  is  in  operation.  An  en- 
gine stop  on  a  lonely  road  will  be  a  serious  matter  to  one 
who  does  not  understand  the  principles  of  action  of  the 
power  plant,  but  only  an  incident  to  one  who  does.  If  the 
general  princii)les  are  understood  and  the  methods  of 
locating  ordinary  troubles  are  ke])t  in  mind  the  motor- 
ist will  be  able  to  keep  the  car  in  oi)eration  and  will  fix 
many  of  the  minor  derangements  Avhich  otherwise  would 
need  attention  from  the  rei)airman,  who  might  not  Ix' 
available  when  most  needed.  In  presenting  this  chajiter 
on  driving  and  maintenance  the  writer  wishes  to  em]>1ia- 
size  that  endeavor  has  been  made  to  group  ]u-actically  all 

133 


134.  TJie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

the  information  which  the  operator  of  the  Ford  car  must 
have  in  order  to  drive  intelHgently  in  one  chapter.  In- 
cluded with  general  operating  instructions  will  be  found 
suggestions  for  systematic  location  of  power  plant  defects 
which  should  be  of  value  to  the  novice. 

Steps  Before  Starting  the  Engine. — Before  attempting  to 
start  the  motor  there  are  a  number  of  preliminary  pre- 
cautions to  be  taken  in  order  to  make  sure  that  the  car 
is  ready  for  the  road.  The  gasoline  container  of  the  Ford 
automobile  has  a  capacity  of  ten  gallons,  and  this  should 


Fig.    39. — Diagram    Showing   Method    of   Marking    Measuring   Stick    to 
Indicate  Contents  of  Ford  Ten  Gallon  Tank. 

be  filled  practically  to  the  top,  and  care  should  be  taken 
never  to  start  out  with  less  than  half  a  tank  full.  In  order 
to  determine  the  amount  of  fuel  available  a  measuring 
stick  may  be  made  according  to  the  dimensions  given  at 
Fig.  39,  which  can  be  introduced  into  the  top  of  filler  open- 
ing to  gauge  the  supply  of  liquid  in  the  container.  The 
mark  to  indicate  1  gallon  should  be  made  V-V^o"  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  stick.  The  mark  to  indicate  2  gallons 
should  be  made  2%q"  from  the  bottom  and  so  on  according 
to  the  figures  given  in  the  diagram.    In  order  to  have  the 


Steps  Before  Starting  Motor  135 

liquid  show  it  may  be  well  to  paint  the  stick  with  a  black 
enamel  before  marking  it.  "When  filling  a  gasoline  tank  it 
is  important  to  use  a  strainer  to  prevent  water  and  other 
foreign  substances  from  reaching  the  tank  interior. 
Chamois  skin  is  an  excellent  strainer  for  gasoline.  Three 
or  four  layers  of  fine  mesh  cotton  cloth  may  also  be  jDlaced 
across  the  mouth  of  the  funnel  if  the  chamois  is  not  avail- 
able. 

As  gasoline  vapor  is  explosive  it  is  well  to  make  sure 
that  there  are  no  naked  flames  within  several  feet  of  the 
tank.  When  filling  the  tank  at  night  be  sure  that  the  oil 
side  lights  are  extinguished  before  any  fuel  is  poured.  It 
is  important  that  no  matches  should  be  lighted  anywhere 
near  where  gasoline  has  been  spilled  as  the  air  for  several 
feet  surrounding  the  spot  has  become  saturated  with 
highly  explosive  vapor.  The  small  vent  holes  in  the  fuel 
tank  cap  should  alwaj^s  be  free,  as  if  this  is  plugged  up  it 
will  prevent  the  gasoline  from  flowing  into  the  carburetor, 
as  the  fuel  would  become  air-bound  in  the  tank.  As  has 
been  previously  explained,  any  dirt  or  foreign  matter  that 
would  pass  into  the  carburetor  will  usually  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sediment  bulb  on  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  from 
which  it  may  be  drained  out  by  opening  a  petcock  screwed 
into  the  bottom  of  the  sediment  bulb  casting.  A  shut-otf 
valve  is  also  provided  so  the  gasoline  supply  in  the  tank 
may  be  conserved  at  such  times  as  is  necessaiy  to  remove 
the  feed  pipe  running  to  the  carburetor.  After  being  sure 
that  the  gasoline  tank  is  full  the  next  step  is  to  ascertain 
that  the  shut-off  valve  is  opened  so  that  the  liquid  can  flow 
to  the  vaporizer. 

Before  starting  out  always  make  sure  that  a  x^roper 
supply  of  medium  body,  high  grade  gas  engine  cylinder  oil 
is  poured  into  the  crank  case  through  the  breather  pipe 


136  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

at  the  front  of  the  engine.  This  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
various  views  of  the  engine  in  other  chapters  and  in  Fig. 
45  herewith.  This  opening  is  covered  by  a  brass  cap  which 
may  be  easily  withdrawn  as  it  is  held  in  place  only  by 
frictional  contact.  In  the  back  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
flywheel  casing,  which  is  also  the  reservoir  that  holds  the 
oil,  are  found  two  petcocks.  Be  sure  the  car  is  on  a  level 
floor  and  pour  in  oil  slowly  until  it  runs  out  of  the  upper 
petcock.  Have  a  can  so  that  the  oil  running  out  will  be 
saved.  Leave  this  j^etcock  or  small  faucet  open  until  the 
oil  stops  running,  then  close  it.  After  the  car  has  been 
used  long  enough  for  the  engine  to  become  thoroughly  free 
and  easy  running,  which  indicates  that  all  parts  have  at- 
tained the  proper  bearing,  the  best  results  will  be  obtained 
by  carrying  the  oil  at  a  level  about  midway  between  the 
two  petcocks.  If  the  lower  petcock  is  opened  and  no  oil 
comes  out  a  jjroper  supply  should  be  immediately  placed 
in  the  crank  case. 

Having  made  sure  that  there  is  a  proper  supply  of  fuel 
and  lubricating  oil  the  next  step  is  to  insure  that  the  cool- 
ing supply  is  adequate.  Remove  the  cap  at  the  top  of  the 
radiator  and  fill  with  clean,  fresh  water.  If  water  is  taken 
from  a  stream  or  from  any  other  source  where  there  is 
any  question  of  its  cleanliness  it  is  advisable  to  strain  it 
through  muslin  or  other  similar  material  to  keep  dirt  from 
getting  in  and  constricting  the  small  bore  of  the  radiator 
tubes.  The  Ford  cooling  system  has  a  cai:)acity  for  slightly 
more  than  three  gallons  of  water.  Never  run  the  engine 
unless  the  radiator  has  been  filled.  The  water  should  be 
poured  in  until  it  runs  out  of  the  overflow -pipe  to  the 
ground  which  may  be  accepted  as  an  indication  that  both 
radiator  and  the  cylinder  water  jacket  have  received  an 
adequate  sujiply.    When  starting  out  with  a  new  car  or 


Hon:  To  Start  Motor  137 

after  the  engine  has  been  overhauled  and  parts  refitted  it 
is  good  i)raetice  to  examine  the  radiator  frequently  and  to 
make  sure  that  it  is  kept  properly  filled.  If  the  car  is  used 
for  long  distances  on  slow  speed,  such  as  hill  climbing  and 
lulling  through  sand  the  engine  may  heat  up  sufficiently 
as  to  boil  out  the  water  so  that  great  care  should  be  taken 
when  operating  a  car  under  these  conditions  to  replenish 
the  water  supply  as  often  as  may  be  necessary.  If  the 
only  water  available  contains  alkalies  and  other  salts  which 
mil  deposit  sediment  in  the  radiator  and  water  jackets 
attempt  should  be  made  to  secure  clean  soft  water  such  as 
rain  water. 

How  to  Start  the  Ford  Motor. — The  essential  precau- 
tions enumerated  having  been  taken,  the  first  step  in 
starting  the  motor  is  to  look  at  the  steering  wheel  and 
notice  the  position  of  the  spark  and  throttle  control  levers 
which  are  clearly  shown  in  inset,  Fig.  42.  The  right  hand 
lever  is  called  a  "throttle,"  as  it  controls  the  amount  of 
gaseous  mixture  drawn  into  the  motor.  "When  the  power 
plant  is  in  operation  the  nearer  the  operator  this  lever 
is  the  faster  the  engine  will  turn  and  the  greater  the 
power  output.  The  left  hand  lever  controls  the  spark 
which  should  be  in  retard  position  or  at  its  extreme  posi- 
tion away  from  the  operator  when  starting  the  motor.  It 
is  possible  in  many  cases  to  advance  this  lever  three  or 
four  notches  by  moving  it  toward  the  seat  without  any 
danger  of  injury  in  cranking.  The  throttle  lever  should 
be  i^laced  about  four  or  five  notches  down  to  secure  easy 
starting.  The  reason  it  is  desiral)le  not  to  advance  the 
spark  control  lever  too  far  is  that  the  engine  may  kick 
back.  This  may  result  in  damage  to  the  wrist  or  arm  of 
the  person  cranking  the  motor  unless  care  is  taken  in  the 
method  of  handling  the  starting  crank.     Before  cranking 


138 


Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 


the  engine  one  should  make  sure  that  the  emergencj^  brake 
lever  is  pulled  back  as  far  as  it  will  go.  When  in  this  posi- 
tion the  clutch  is  out  and  the  hub  brakes  are  engaged,  which 
prevents  the  car  from  moving.    After  inserting  the  switch 


Fig.    40. — Illustrating   Correct   Method  of   Grasping   Starting    Crank   to 
Avoid  Injury  Due  to  Back  Kick. 


key  in  the  switch  on  the  coil  box,  throw  the  switch  lever 
as  far  to  the  left  as  it  will  go  toward  the  point  marked 
^'magneto."  The  engine  cannot  be  started  until  the  elec- 
trical circuit  is  complete.  If  batteries  are  used  for  igni- 
tion as  an  auxiliary  it  may  be  possible  to  start  the  engine 
easier  on  the  battery  current,  though  a  A^'ery  easy  start  may 


How  To  Start  Motor  139 

be  secured  on  the  magneto  provided  the  coil  vibrators  are 
properly  adjusted. 

After  having  put  the  switch  in  either  battery  or  mag- 
neto position  the  next  step  is  to  crank  the  engine  by  lifting 
on  the  starting  crank  at  the  front  of  the  car.  Take  hold 
of  the  handle  and  push  the  crank  in  toward  the  car  until 
you  feel  the  ratchet  on  the  crank  engage  with  the  pin 
passing  through  the  crank  shaft.  The  crank  handle  should 
be  pulled  ujDward  with  a  quick  swing.  The  proper  method 
of  grasping  a  crank  is  shown  at  Fig.  40.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  crank  is  grasped  in  the  left  hand  and  that 
any  tendency  to  backfire  will  pull  the  handle  out  of  the 
hand  by  opening  the  fingers.  The  improper  method  of 
cranking  is  shown  at  Fig.  41.  In  this  case  the  right  hand 
is  placed  around  the  crank  handle  and  the  engine  is  started 
by  pushing  down  against  the  compression  instead  of  lift- 
ing up  on  the  handle  to  overcome  the  compression  resist- 
ance. It  will  be  evident  that  if  the  spark  advance  lever 
is  set  so  that  an  early  explosion  obtains  this  will  drive 
the  handle  vigorously  backward,  which  force  is  x)artially 
resisted  by  the  tensed  arm  of  the  operator.  There  are 
times  when  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  crank  vigorously 
which  is  called  ''spinning"  the  engine.  In  this  case  be 
sure  that  the  spark  lever  is  fully  retarded,  otherwise  a 
sudden  backfire  may  cause  injury. 

If  the  engine  has  been  standing  for  a  time  it  is  advis- 
able to  prime  the  carburetor  by  pulling  on  the  small  wire 
at  the  lower  left  corner  of  the  radiator  while  giving  the 
engine  two  or  three  quarter  turns  with  the  starting  handle. 
In  this  case  the  crank  should  be  grasped  by  the  right 
hand  but  care  should  be  taken  to  only  pull  up  against  the 
compression.  In  cold  weather  gasoline  does  not  evap- 
orate verv  readilv  so  it  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  start 


140 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


a  motor  under  these  conditions.  The  method  recommended 
by  the  Ford  company  for  starting  the  engine  when  cold 
is  to  turn  the  carburetor  dash  adjustment  one  quarter 
turn  to  the  left  in  order  to  allow  a  richer  mixture  of 
gasoline  to  lie  drawn  into  the  cylinders,  then  to  hold  out 


Fig.  41. — Showing  Wrong  Method  of  Exerting  Pressure  on  Crank  When 

Starting  Motor. 


the  priming  rod  which  projects  through  the  radiator  while 
the  crank  is  whirled  vigorously.  Another  method  is  as 
follows:  Before  throwing  on  the  magneto  switch  close 
the  throttle  lever,  hold  out  priming  rod  while  you  give 
crank  several  quick  turns,  then  let  go  of  priming  rod, 
place  the  spark  lever  in  third  or  fourth  notch,  advance 


Hotc  To  Start   Motor  Ul 

tlirottle  lever  several  notclies,  throw  on  the  switch  and 
crank  briskly. 

After  starting  the  motor  it  is  advisable  to  advance 
the  spark  half  way  down  the  quadrant  and  to  let  the  motor 
run  until  thoroughly  heated  up.  If  one  starts  out  witli 
a  cold  motor  it  is  not  likely  to  have  much  power  and  it 
would  be  easy  to  ' '  stall ' '  it.  It  is  said  that  the  advantage 
of  turning  on  the  switch  last  after  priming  is  that  there  is 
plenty  of  gas  in  the  cylinders  to  keep  the  motor  running. 
After  the  motor  is  warmed  up  the  carburetor  adjustment 
should  be  turned  back  to  the  proper  running  position.  If, 
for  any  reason,  the  engine  is  warm  and  does  not  start 
readily  it  is  probably  because  the  engine  has  been  flooded 
with  an  over  rich  gas  mixture.  The  remedy  for  this  con- 
dition is  to  turn  the  carburetor  adjusting  needle  down  by 
screwing  the  needle  valve  on  the  dash  to  the  right  until 
the  needle  seats  in  the  carburetor.  Crank  the  engine 
briskly  to  exhaust  the  rich  gas,  then  throw  on  the  switch 
and  start  the  engine.  As  soon  as  the  cylinders  fire  turn 
back  the  needle  to  the  normal  running  position. 

If  the  engine  fails  to  start  the  following  defective 
conditions  may  be  responsible:  Water  in  the  gasoline; 
water  or  hardened  oil  in  commutator;  coil  vibrators  out 
of  proper  adjustment ;  gas  mixture  too  thin ;  gas  mixture 
too  rich;  magneto  contact  point  in  transmission  cover 
raised  because  of  foreign  matter  or  short  circuiting  by  a 
piece  of  wire  from  brake  lining;  gasoline  supply  shut  oif ; 
water  frozen  in  gasoline  tank  sediment  bulb;  poor  con- 
tact at  coil  switch ;  loose  magneto  wire  leading  to  coil ; 
loose  timer  wires ;  engine  too  cold  to  properly  vaporize  gas 
(only  in  zero  weather).  Sliould  the  engine  start,  run  for 
a  time  and  then  stop  suddenly,  one  should  make  sure  that 
there  is  plenty  of  fuel  in  the  gasoline  tank.    The  trouble 


142  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

may  be  a  flooded  carburetor;  dirt  in  carburetor  or  feed 
pipe;  magneto  wire  loose  at  either  terminal;  magneto 
current  collecting  point  obstructed;  engine  overheated 
on  account  of  insufficient  oil  or  water  supply. 

If  the  engine  lacks  power  and  runs  irregularly,  which 
is  called  ''skipping"  at  low  speed  it  may  be  due  to:  im- 
perfect gas  mixture;  dirty  spark  plugs;  poorly  adjusted 
coil  vibrators ;  poor  compression ;  air  leak  through  intake 
manifold ;  weak  exhaust  valve  springs,  too  little  clearance 
between  valve  stem  and  operating  push  rod;  spark  plug- 
points  too  near  together. 

If  the  engine  misfires  at  high  speed,  it  may  result  from 
imperfect  contact  in  the  interior  of  the  commutator;  too 
much  air  gaj:)  between  the  points  of  the  spark  plugs ;  im- 
perfect gas  mixture  or  poorly  adjusted  vibrators.  When 
an  engine  overheats,  the  most  common  condition  is  run- 
ning with  too  rich  gas  mixture  and  retarded  spark.  Other 
troubles  are :  insufficient  lubricating  oil ;  not  enough  water 
in  the  radiator ;  fan  belt  too  loose  or  slipping ;  water  cir- 
culation poor,  owing  to  sediment  in  radiator  tubes ;  or 
carbon  deposits  in  combustion  chambers.  These  carbon 
deposits  may  be  also  present  on  the  piston  head  and  will 
result  in  loss  of  power  as  well  as  produce  knocking  sounds. 
If  a  loud  knock  is  evident  it  is  usually  due  to  a  loose  con- 
necting rod  or  crank  shaft  bearing  or  running  with  the 
spark  advanced  too  far  and  it  is  always  the  sign  of  a  badly 
overheated  engine. 

Controlling  the  Ford  Car. — The  Ford  car  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  moderate-priced  automobiles  and  over 
600,000  of  the  Model  ''T"  are  now  on  the  road.  The 
control  system  of  this  car  is  extremely  simple  and  yet  it 
is  different  from  that  of  any  other  automobile.  The 
gearset,  which  has  been  previously  described,  is  a  plane- 


Control  Si/stcm  Ed' plained 


143 


taiy  type  which  gives  two  forward  speeds  and  a  reverse 
motion.  The  conventional  fonn  of  steering  wheel  is  used 
to  control  the  direction  of  car  travel,  and  spark  and  throt- 
tle levers  are  mounted  on  steering  column  beneath  the 
wheel  to  control  the  speed  of  the  power  plant.     It  is  in 


Gasoline  Adjustment 


Steering  Wheel 


Emergency 
and  Clutch  Release 


High  and  Low 
Speed  Clutch 


Gas 


Fig.  42. — The  Control  System  of  the  Ford  Model  T  Car. 

the  method  of  obtaining  the  various  speed  ratios  that  the 
control  system  is  distinctive.  As  will  be  seen  by  refer- 
ring to  Fig.  42,  three  pedals  and  a  hand  lever  are  provided 
on  the  left  side  of  the  car.  The  pedal  on  the  extreme  left 
side  controls  the  high  and  low-speed  clutches  and  is 
marked  "C."    That  next  to  it,  which  is  marked  "R,"  is 


144  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

used  to  constrict  the  reverse  band  of  the  transmission 
and  obtain  reverse  motion.  The  pedal  at  the  right,  which 
is  provided  with  a  letter  ' '  B  "  cast  on  its  surface,  is  used 
to  apply  the  foot  brake. 

The  hand  lever  engages  the  high  speed  or  direct  drive 
clutch  when  thrown  forward  and  when  pulled  back  it 
actuates  the  emergency  brake  which  cannot  be  applied 
without  releasing  the  direct  drive  clutch.  The  lever  iwrj 
Tie  set  in  a  neutral  position  and  the  clutch  will  be  released 
without  applying  the  brake  when  it  is  approximately 
vertical.  When  the  high  speed  is  in  and  the  hand  lever 
is  thrown  way  forward  the  high  speed  clutch  may  be  re- 
leased by  a  light  j^ressure  on  pedal  "C"  and  a  further 
movement  of  this  pedal  mil  apply  the  low  speed.  Thus 
one  pedal  gives  control  of  both  high  and  low  speeds  for- 
ward and  the  clutch  can  be  released  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  a  sliding  gear  driven  car  when  it  is 
desired  to  slow  up  such  as  for  turning  a  corner,  aescend- 
ing  a  hill  or  passing  another  vehicle. 

Before  starting  the  car  the  hand  lever  must  be  in  a 
vertical  position,  this  releasing  the  clutch  and  apphdng 
the  emergency  brakes.  To  start  the  car,  after  the  engine 
has  been  started,  the  foot  is  placed  on  the  clutch  pedal  to 
keep  it  in  a  neutral  position  while  the  hand  lever  is  thrown 
as  far  forward  as  it  will  go.  The  engine  is  then  accel- 
erated and  the  clutch  pedal  is  pushed  forward  until  the 
slow  speed  band  tightens  around  the  drum  of  the  trans- 
mission and  the  car  gathers  headway  on  the  lower  ratio. 
After  it  has  attained  a  certain  momentum  the  clutch  pedal 
is  allowed  to  drop  back  gradually  into  the  high-speed 
position.  The  foot  may  then  be  removed  until  such  times 
that  the  clutch  must  be  disconnected.  Before  applying 
the  foot  brake,  which  is  done  by  pressing  with  the  right 


General  Driving  Instructions  1-4.5 

foot  upon  the  pedal  marked  ''B,"  the  clutch  pedal  should 
be  put  in  neutral  position  with  the  left  foot. 

To  reverse  the  car,  it  must  first  be  brought  to  a  stand- 
still. The  engine  is  kept  running  and  the  clutch  is  dis- 
engaged with  the  hand  lever,  which  is  placed  in  the  neutral 
position  but  not  pulled  far  enough  back  to  apply  the  emer- 
gency brake.  The  reverse  pedal  marked  ''E"  is  then 
pushed  forward  with  the  left  foot  leaving  the  right  one 
free  to  use  on  the  brake  pedal  if  needed.  To  stop  the 
car,  the  throttle  is  closed  so  the  engine  will  not  race ;  the 
high  speed  is  released  by  pressing  the  clutch  pedal  for- 
ward into  its  neutral  position  and  applying  the  foot  brake 
slowlv,  but  finnlv,  until  the  forward  motion  of  the  car  is 
arrested.  It  is  imperative  that  the  foot  be  retained  on  the 
clutch  pedal  until  the  liand  lever  is  pulled  back  to  its 
neutral  position.  The  placing  of  the  spark  and  throttle 
levers  is  clearly  shown  in  the  inset  in  the  right-hand 
corner  of  the  cut,  both  levers  being  pulled  back  to  accel- 
erate the  motor  and  i)ushed  forward  to  slow  it  down. 

General  Driving  Instructions. — The  following  instruc- 
tions apply  to  all  types  of  gasoline  automobiles  as  much 
as  to  the  Ford  and  may  be  followed  to  advantage  by  all 
motorists.  The  gear-shift  lever  should  always  be  placed 
in  a  neutral  position  when  the  car  is  stopped,  whether  it 
is  left  alone  or  attended.  The  clutch  should  always  be 
applied  gradually  and  as  slowly  as  possible  because  too 
sudden  or  harsh  engagement  will  produce  stresses  that 
will  injure  the  tires  or  driving  mechanism  of  the  chassis. 
Never  allow  the  engine  to  race  or  run  excessively  fast 
Avhen  changing  speeds,  and  it  is  well  not  to  undertake  to 
change  speeds  with  either  motor  or  car  running  at  high 
speed.  When  changing  down,  i.  e.,  from  a  higher  to  a 
lower  gear,  allow  the  car  to  slow  down  until  its  speed  is 


146  .   The. Ford  Model  T  Car 

about  the  same  as  that  which  will  be  produced  by  the 
lower  gear  ratio  desired  before  the  clutch  is  engaged  to 
produce  the  lower  speed. 

Always  drive  a  car  slowly  and  cautiously  until  you 
are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  control  mechanism  and 
the  methods  of  stopping  the  car.  When  driving  up  grades 
on  the  high  speed,  if  the  motor  shows  any  tendency  to 
labor,  shift  back  into  the  lower  gear  ratio  which  has  been 
provided  for  that  purpose.  Many  motorists  believe  that 
the  best  test  of  a  car's  ability  is  to  rush  all  hills  or  bad 
spots  in  the  roads  on  the  direct  drive.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, that  the  lower  speed  ratio  was  provided  for 
use  at  all  times  when  employing  the  high  speed  might 
produce  injurious  stresses  in  the  motor.  All  unusual 
noises  should  be  investigated  at  once  as  these  sounds 
usually  presage  more  or  less  serious  trouble.  A  gasoline 
car  should  never  be  driven  with  a  slipping  clutch,  and  it 
is  imperative  that  the  brakes  and  steering  gear  be  fre- 
quently inspected  to  make  sure  that  they  are  in  proper 
order. 

One  should  never  attempt  to  drive  Ford  cars  at  high 
speeds  unless  the  tire  casings  are  in  perfect  condition  and 
the  road  surfaces  good.  When  driving  on  clay  or  muddy 
roads,  or  on  wet  asphalt,  care  must  be  taken  in  turning 
corners  and  the  car  should  be  driven  cautiously  to  avoid 
dangerous  side  slipping  or  skidding.  "S^lien  driving  on 
unfavorable  highway  surfaces  always  keep  one  side  of 
the  car  on  firm  ground,  if  possible.  Brakes  should  always 
be  carefully  applied,  especially  if  the  road  surfaces  are 
wet.  An  automobile  should  never  be  brought  to  a  stop 
in  mud,  clay  or  sand,  snow  or  slush,  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
AVhenever  road  conditions  are  unfavorable  the  smooth 
tread  tires  of  the  driving  wheels  should  always  be  fitted 


General  Driving  Instructions 


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148  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

with  cliain-tire  grips,  as  shown  at  Fig.  43,  to  insure 
having  adequate  traction. 

All  motorists  should  familiarize  themselves  as  much 
as  possible  with  the  mechanism  of  their  cars  and  should 
feel  competent  enough  to  make  the  ordinary  adjustments 
and  minor  repairs  before  any  long  trips  are  attempted. 
A  full  equipment  of  tools  and  spare  tires  and  casings 
should  be  carried  at  all  times.  It  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  manufacturer  of  the  car  has  issued  a  set  of  in- 
structions for  its  care  and  maintenance,  and  these  should 
be  followed  as  closely  as  possible  because  intelligent  care 
of  any  piece  of  machinery  means  long  life  and  reliable 
service  and  the  automobile  is  no  exception  to  the  rule. 

Suggestions  for  Oiling. — One  of  the  most  important 
points  to  be  observed  in  connection  with  gasoline  auto- 
mobile operation  is  that  all  parts  be  oiled  regularly.  It 
is  not  enough  to  apply  lubricant  indiscriminately  to  the 
various  chassis  parts,  but  it  must  be  done  systematically 
and  logically  to  secure  the  best  results  and  insure  econom- 
ical use  of  lubricant.  The  most  important  parts  are  the 
power  plant  and  transmission  system  and  the  engine  is 
but  one  point  in  the  car  that  must  be  properly  oiled  at  all 
times  to  obtain  satisfactory  results.  Some  of  the  run- 
ning-gear parts  are  relatively  unimportant,  others  demand 
regular  inspection  and  oiling.  A  very  comprehensive 
oiling  chart  is  presented  at  Fig.  44,  this  showing  prac- 
tically all  of  the  points  that  require  oil  as  well  as  gi^ing 
instructions  regarding  the  character  of  the  lubricant 
needed  and  how  often  it  should  be  applied.  Some  of  the 
points  are  governed  by  special  instructions,  these  being 
the  transmission  case,  timer,  and  rear  axle.  Use  only  the 
best  medium  body  cylinder  oil  in  the  Ford  motor.  The 
writer  has  obtained  excellent  results  by  putting  in  a  quart 


Front  Sprinj 
Hanger,  Oil 

every  200 

miles 

Front  Spring  ■ 
Hanger.  Bolt 
Oil  euery  200 
miles 

Steering  Post  Bracket 
Grease  Cup.  Oil 
every  500  miles 

Lubricate  Engine  and 
Transmission  by  aaily 
Replenishments  through 
breather  tube.  Oil  level  in 
crank  case  should  be 
carried  slightly  above 
lower  pet  cock 


Steering-gear 
Internal  Gear  Case 
Fill  with  grease  every 
5000  miles 


Hub  Brake  Cam 
Oil  every  200 
miles 


Rear  Spring 
Hanger,  Oil 
every  200 
miles 


Hub.    Greaae 

every  500 

miles 

Spindle  Belt 

Oil  every  100 

miles 

Steering  Ball 

Socket.  Oil  euery 

100  miles 

Commutator 

Oil  or  Vaseline 

every  200  miles 

Fan  Hub,    Grease  Cup 

One  complete  turn 

every  50  miles 


Control  Bracket 
Oil  every  400  miles 


Universal  Joint,  Grease 

Cup.    Fill  with  grease 

every  300  miles 


Drive  Shaft  Front 

Bearing,  Grease  Cup 

Two  complete  turns 

every  100  miles 


Rear  Spring 

Hanger.  Oil 

euery  200 

miles 


Differential      Fill  with 
Grease  once  every 
600  miles 


Fig.  44.— Plan  View  of  Ford  Model  T  Chassis  Showing  Important  Points 
Requiring  Lubrication  and  When  This  Attention  is  Needed. 

149 


150 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


of  lubricant  to  every  five  gallons  of  gasoline,  tlie  oil  was 
introduced  through  the  breather  jDipe  eveiy  time  that 
amount  of  fuel  was  placed  in  the  tank. 

Neither  the  transmission  case  nor  the  differential  case 
on  the  rear  axle  should  be  filled  with  heavy  "Dope'' 


Starting 
Crank  Pin 


Fan  Driue 
Pulley 


Fig.  45. — Method  of  Oiling  the  Ford  Commutator  or  Timer  With  Light 
on.  Note  Breather  Opening  Back  of  Timer  Through  Which  Oil  is 
Poured  Into  Crank  Case. 

widely  sold,  which  may  contain  fiber  or  cork  particles  to 
make  for  more  silent  operation.  If  gears  are  noisy  it 
is  either  because  they  are  worn  or  out  of  adjustment, 
and  the  use  of  the  nostrums  and  freak  lubricants  will  not 
improve  their  operation.  The  rear  axle  differential  hous- 
ing should  be  filled  with  as  light  mineral  grease  as  it  is 
possible  to  get,  those  having  about  the  consistency  of 
vaseline  and  containing  graphite  being  most  desirable  as 


Ford  Chassis  Lubrication  151 

lubricants.  Light  oils  should  not  be  used  in  the  rear  axle 
housing,  because  these  will  not  stay  in  place  but  leak  out 
over  the  brakes  and  will  not  have  sufficient  body  to  cushion 
the  gear  teeth.  The  only  other  point  on  the  chart  which 
needs  explanation  is  lubrication  of  the  timer  interior. 
This  'should  be  oiled,  as  it  is  a  roller  contact  form  and 
a  few  drops  of  magneto  or  3-in-l  oil  should  be  applied  to 
the  roll  and  the  contact  segments  once  a  week.  The  timer 
case  should  be  removed  and  all  old,  dirty  oil  washed  out 
with  gasoline  before  fresh  lubricant  is  supplied.  Never 
use  graphite  grease  or  any  heavy  oil  in  a  timer  case  be- 
cause these  will  not  only  interfere  with  regular  ignition 
by  short  circuiting  the  current,  but  they  will  clog  up  the 
timer  and  prevent  the  roller  establishing  proper  contact 
with  the  segments.  After  a  car  is  oiled  it  is  well  to  go 
over  all  the  exposed  joints  with  a  piece  of  cloth  to  remove 
the  accumulation  of  surplus  oil  on  the  outside  of  the  parts 
which  serves  no  useful  purpose  and  which  only  acts  to 
attract  and  retain  dust  and  grit.  The  instructions  given 
on  the  chart  can  be  followed  to  advantage  on  many  types 
of  gasoline  cars,  though,  of  course,  the  different  construc- 
tions w^ll  have  to  be  treated  as  the  peculiarities  of  design 
dictate. 

A  systematic  method  of  lubricating  the  various  parts 
is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  usual  haphazard  way  in 
which  the  cars  are  oiled.  The  speedometer  may  be  used 
to  check  off  the  mileage  made  by  the  car  and  if  a  note  is 
made  of  the  distance  covered  no  trouble  should  be  experi- 
enced in  following  the  chart  at  Fig.  44.  The  simplicity 
of  the  Ford  car  makes  for  easy  lubrication  as  the  entire 
mechanism  can  be  thoroughly  oiled  in  less  than  five  min- 
utes. The  places  needing  lubrication,  itemized  under  the 
heads  of  mileage  covered,  follow : 


152 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Lubricant 

Oil 

Oil 

Oil 

Oil 

Oil 

Oil 

Oil 


Lubricate  After  200  Miles'  Driving. 
Numbei-  Name  of  Parts 

2     Front  axle,  steering  knuckle  pivots  or  spindle  bolts. 


2 

2 

1 

1 
o 

2 


Front  spring  shackles  and  bolts. 

Yokes  of  tie  rod. 

Steering  ball  socket. 

Commutator  or  timer. 

Eear  hub  brake  cams. 

Eear  spring  shackles   and  bolts. 


Turn  grease  cup     1     Fan  hub. 


Turn  grease  cup 
Turn  grease  cup 
Turn  grease  cup 
Grease 


vrrease 


Oil 


Grease 


Lubricate  After  500  Miles'  Driving. 

1  Steering  post  bracket. 

1  Universal  joint  of  shaft. 

1  Driving   shaft   front   bearing. 

2  Front  wheel  hubs. 

Lubricate  After  1,000  Miles'  Driving. 

1     J^iflFerential  housing. 

Lubricate  After  2,000  Miles'  Driving. 
1     Control  bracket. 

Lubricate  After  5,000  Miles'  Driving. 
1     Steering  gear  internal  gear  case. 

Lubricate  Daily. 


Oil 

1 

Motor. 

Lubricate  Occasionally, 

Oil 

1 

Fan  belt  shaft. 

Oil 

1 

Fan  belt  pulley. 

Oil 

1 

Crank  handle  bearing. 

Oil 

4 

Yokes  of  brake  rods. 

In  referring  to  the  process  of  oiling,  this  means  using 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  lubricate  the  bearing  parts  thor- 
oughly, and  turning  the  grease  cups  means  that  these  as- 
sumedly  contain  grease.  Greasing  means  packing  the 
bearing  or  housing  until  it  is  filled.  The  caretaker  can 
examine  the  condition  of  the  grease  cups,  and  when  these 
are  found  properly  filled  they  should  be  screwed  down. 


Winter  Care  of  jiutowobUes  153 

Filling  and  screwing  down  each  cup  threo  times,  to  insure 
ample  supiily  of  lubricant  being  in  the  bearhig,  is  a  safe 
practice  to  follow.  The  fourth  time  filled  the  cup  can  be 
left  for  the  stated  mileage  interval.  C'are  should  be  taken 
to  wipe  the  cups  clean  before  tilling,  to  prevent  dirt  being 
carried  into  the  bearings,  and  the  oilers  should  be  cleaned 
with  equally  good  reason. 

The  best  attention  can  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  day's 
or  night 's  driving,  which  will  require  but  very  little  time, 
for  conditions  will  all  be  favorable.  The  engine  should 
be  wiped  clean  while  it  is  warm,  for  the  oil  or  grease  and 
dust  accumulated  will  be  soft  enough  to  remove  easily. 
The  oil  cups  should  be  filled,  all  the  grease  cups  turned 
according  to  the  mileage  for  the  day,  the  fuel  supply  re- 
newed, the  water  supply  in  radiator  replenished,  and  the 
oil  in  the  engine  case  brought  to  the  required  level.  The 
next  time  the  machine  is  wanted  it  will  be  ready  for  use 
and  the  owner  will  know  that  it  can  be  driven  200  miles 
or  more  with  absolute  certainty  that  it  will  have  sufficient 
oil  at  all  points  except  the  engine  which  should  be  looked 
at  at  the  end  of  100  miles  to  make  sure  there  is  enough 
oil  in  the  flywheel  compartment. 

Systematic  attention  to  oiling  and  greasing,  such  as 
has  been  described,  will  so  familiarize  a  man  with  the 
normal  conditions  that  he  will  note  whether  or  not  there 
is  wear  of  any  of  the  moving  parts,  and  one  will  find  that 
there  is  usually  need  of  tightening  nuts  and  screws  that 
will  slacken,  no  matter  how  well  they  have  been  set,  and 
these  ought  to  be  tightened.  It  is  easy  to  discover  loose 
parts  while  oiling  and  take  immediate  steps  to  remedy 
the  defective  condition. 

Winter  Care  of  Automobiles. — While  motoring  through- 
out the  entire  year  is  not  unusual,  many  owners  of  cars, 


154  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

especially  in  those  portions  of  the  country  where  the  win- 
ter climate  is  exceptionally  severe,  put  up  their  car  for 
the  winter  period.  If  the  car  is  kept  in  service  the  most 
important  thing  to  do  is  to  provide  some  good  anti-freez- 
ing compound  in  order  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  radiator 
and  cylinders  from  congealing.  There  is  some  difference 
of  opinion  regarding  the  best  solution  to  use  to  prevent 
cracked  water  jackets  and  burst  radiators.  Before  we 
attempt  to  answer  the  questions  often  asked  regarding 
the  best  anti-freezing  compound,  it  will  be  well  to  consider 
the  requirements  of  such  compounds.  To  begin  with  it 
should  have  no  deleterious  effects  on  the  metals  or  rubber 
used  in  the  circulating  system.  It  must  be  easily  dis- 
solved or  combined  with  water,  should  be  reasonably  cheap, 
and  not  subject  to  waste  by  evaporation  or  be  of  such 
character  that  it  will  deposit  foreign  matter  in  the  pipes. 
The  boiling  point  should  be  higher  than  that  of  water  to 
jDrevent  boiling  away  of  the  solution  at  comparatively  low 
temperature. 

Solutions  of  calcium  chloride  have  been  very  popular 
with  motorists,  and  the  writer  will  first  discuss  the  use  of 
this  substance.  The  freezing  point  of  the  solution  de- 
pends upon  the  proportion  of  the  salt  to  the  water.  An 
important  factor  to.  be  considered  is  that  if  the  parts  of 
the  circulation  system  are  composed  of  different  metals 
there  is  liable  to  be  a  certain  electrolytic  action  between 
the  salt  and  the  dissimilar  metals  at  the  points  of  juncture, 
a  certain  corrosion  taking  place,  and  the  intensity  of  this 
corrosive  effect  is  dependent  upon  the  strength  of  the 
solution.  As  calcium  chloride  is  derived  from  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  has  very  strong  effect  on  metals,  and 
as  there  may  be  particles  of  the  free  acid  in  the  solution, 
a  certain  undesirable  corrosive  action  may  take  place.    In 


IJ'' inter  Care  of  Automobiles  155 

using  calcium  chloride  when  comixjunding  an  anti-freezing 
solution  care  must  be  taken  that  commercially  pure  salt 
is  employed,  as  the  cruder  grades  will  liberate  a  larger 
percentage  of  free  acid.  The  mistake  should  not  be  made 
of  using  chloride  of  lime,  which  has  much  the  same  ap- 
pearance, but  the  corrosive  action  of  which  is  very  great. 

It  is  well  to  test  a  solution  of  calcium  chloride  for  acid 
before  placing  it  in  the  radiator.  A  piece  of  blue  litmus 
paj^er  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store  and  immersed 
in  the  solution.  If  the  paper  turns  red  it  is  a  sign  that 
there  is  acid  present.  Acid  may  be  neutralized  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  slacked  lime. 

The  solutions  may  be  made  in  these  proportions : 

Two  pounds  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water  will  freeze 
at  eighteen  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Three  pounds  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water  will  freeze 
at  one  and  five-tenths  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Four  pounds  of  salt  to  the  gallon  will  freeze  at  seven- 
teen degrees  Fahrenheit  below  zero. 

Five  pounds  of  salt  to  the  gallon  will  freeze  at  thirty- 
nine  degrees  Fahrenheit  below  zero. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  more  salt  to  the  solu- 
tion, the  greater  the  electrolytic  effect  and  the  greater 
the  liability  of  the  deposit  of  salt  crystals  which  may  ob- 
struct the  free  flow  of  the  liquid. 

Glycerine  is  usually  considered  quite  favorably,  Init 
it  has  disadvantages,  It  often  contains  free  acid,  though 
the  action  on  metals  will  be  imperceptible  in  average  solu- 
tions. "While  it  does  not  attack  metal  piping  to  any  ex- 
tent it  is  sure  destruction  to  rubber  hose  and  should  not 
be  used  in  a  car  in  which  part  of  the  circulation  system 
piping  is  of  rubber.  Glycerine  is  expensive  and  it  is 
liable  to  decompose  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  pro- 


1.56  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

portions  added  to  the  water  must  be  higher  than  of  some 
other  substances. 

Denatured  alcohol  is  without  doubt  the  best  substance 
to  use  as  it  does  not  have  any  destructive  action  on  the 
metals  or  rubber  hose,  will  not  form  deposits  of  foreign 
matter,  and  has  no  electrolytic  effect,  A  solution  of  sixty 
per  cent,  water  and  forty  per  cent,  alcohol  will  stand 
twenty-five  degrees  below  zero  without  freezing.  The 
chief  disadvantage  to  its  use  is  that  it  evaporates  more 
rapidly  than  water  and  the  solution  is  liable  to  become 
too  light  as  proportions  of  alcohol  to  water  is  concerned. 
The  percentages  recpiired  are  shown  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

Water,  ninety-five  per  cent. ;  alcohol,  five  per  cent. ; 
freezes  at  twenty-five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water,  eighty-five  j^er  cent. ;  alcohol,  fifteen  per  cent. ; 
freezes  at  eleven  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water,  eighty  per  cent. ;  alcohol  twenty  per  cent.  ; 
freezes  at  five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water,  seventy  per  cent. ;  alcohol,  thirty  per  cent. ; 
freezes  at  nine  degrees  Fahrenheit   below  zero. 

Water,  sixty-five  per  cent. ;  alcohol,  thirty-five  per 
cent.;  freezes  at  sixteen  degrees  Fahrenheit   below  zero. 

Various  mixtures  have  been  tried  of  alcohol,  glycerine 
and  water,  and  good  results  obtained.  The  addition  of 
glycerine  to  a  water-alcohol  solution  reduces  liability  of 
evaporation  to  a  large  extent,  and  when  glycerine  is  used 
in  such  proi^ortions  it  is  not  liable  to  damage  the  rubber 
hose.  The  proportions  recommended  are  a  solution  of  half 
glycerine  and  half  alcohol  to  water.  The  glycerine  in 
such  a  solution  will  remain  practically  the  same,  not  being 
subject  to  evaporation,  and  water  and  alcohol  must  be 
supplied  if  amount  of  solution  in  radiator  is  not  enough. 


fVi liter  Care  of  Automobiles 


157 


The  freezing  temperatures  of  such  solutions  of  varying 
])roi)ortions  are  as  follows : 

Water,  eighty-five  per  cent.;  alcohol  and  glycerine, 
fifteen  per  cent. ;  freezes  at  twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water,  seventy-five  per  cent.;  alcohol  and  glycerine, 
twenty-five  per  cent. ;  freezes  at  eight  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Water,  seventy  per  cent. ;  alcohol  and  glycerine,  thirty 
l)er  cent.;  freezes  at  five  degrees  Fahrenheit  below  zero. 


Fig.   46. — Devices  to  Facilitate   Starting  Ford  Motor  in  Cold  Weather. 
A.— Injex  Primer.    B.— Spark  Plug  With  Priming  Valve  Attachment. 

AYater,  sixty  per  cent.;  alcohol  and  glycerine,  forty 
per  cent.;  freezes  at  twenty-three  degrees  Fahrenheit 
below  zero. 

The  proper  proportions  to  be  used  must  of  course  be 
governed  by  conditions  of  locality,  but  it  is  better  to  be 
safe  than  sorry,  and  make  the  solutions  strong  enough  for 
any  extreme  that  may  be  expected. 

After  due  care  has  been  taken  with  the  cooling  system 


158  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

to  prevent  freezing,  the  next  point  to  observe  is  the  lubri- 
cation of  the  motor.  This  will  depend  on  the  grades  of 
oil  which  are  normally  employed.  As  a  general  rule  it 
is  well  to  use  a  lighter  grade  in  winter  than  that  utilized 
during  warmer  weather.  If  an  acetylene  lighting  system 
utilizing  a  gas  generator  is  fitted  it  is  necessary  that  the 
water  used  in  the  water  tank  or  the  water  jacket  provided 
on  some  generators  be  drained  off  and  replaced  with  a 
solution  of  denatured  alcohol  and  water  of  the  proper 
consistency  for  the  degree  of  temperature  liable  to  be 
met  with. 

During  cold  weather,  a  certain  amount  of  difficulty  is 
always  experienced  in  starting  the  car,  especially  when 
one  considers  the  low  grade  of  gasoline  used  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  The  Ford  engine  is  not  provided  with  petcocks 
through  which  gasoline  may  be  injected  as  in  other  auto- 
mobiles. Special  spark  plugs  may  be  obtained  having  a 
petcock  incorporated  with  the  plug  body  or  a  special 
primer  may  be  placed  between  the  carburetor  and  mani- 
fold, as  shown  at  Fig.  46.  Pulling  a  wire  when  cranking  a 
car  equipped  with  the  primer  permits  gasoline  to  flow  di- 
rectly to  the  intake  manifold  as  shown.  In  extreme  cold 
weather  many  motorists  disconnect  the  fan  belt  in  order 
that  the  air  draught  through  the  radiator  will  not  cool 
the  water  to  such  a  point  that  the  engine  will  not  run 
efficiently.  Other  motorists  provide  some  form  of  a  lined 
leather  shield  for  the  front  of  the  radiator. 

The  Ford  Lighting-  System.— The  system  of  lighting 
supplied  with  the  Ford  car  includes  3  oil  lamps,  two  at 
the  dash  and  one  at  the  rear.  The  headlights  of  models 
made  previous  to  1915  are  of  the  acetylene  gas  burning 
type  deriving  the  gas  from  action  of  water  on  calcium 
carbide  in  a  simple  generator  carried  on  the  running 


Ford  Lighting  System 


159 


boards.  Pure  calcium  carbide  will  produce  about  5.5 
cubic  feet  of  gas  per  pound  of  carbide  decomposed,  but 
the  commercial  product  seldom  yields  more  than  4.5  cubic 
feet.  Acetylene  is  a  very  brilliant  illuminating  gas  and 
gives  a  white  light  of  about  240  candlepower  if  burned 
at  the  rate  of  five  cubic  feet  an  hour.  The  strength  of 
illumination  can  be  better  judged  by  comparing  it  ^\\ih. 
that  produced  by  burning  five  cubic  feet  of  good  coal  gas 


Gen 


Inlet  Pipe-'     ^^^^'"'J 

Quarter  Elbow 


Jig.  47. — Acetylene  Gas  Lighting  System  Similar  to  That  Used  for  Ford 
Lights  on  1910  to  1914  Models.  1915  Ford  Cars  Have  Electric 
Head  Lights. 

in  the  same  period  of  time  which  will  result  in  only  16 
candlepower.  A  special  form  of  burner  is  used  in  the 
Ford  automobile  headlights,  which  mixes  a  certain  amount 
of  air  with  gas  and  the  brilliant  white  light  produced  is 
intensified  and  projected  by  means  of  a  lens  mirror 
placed  at  the  back  part  of  the  lamp.  This  lens  senses  to 
collect  and  concentrate  the  rays  of  light  from  the  flame 
into  a  beam  composed  of  parallel  rays  which  have  great 
illuminating  power,  and  which  will  light  up  the  road  for 
several  hundred  feet  ahead  of  the  car  and  permit  higher 


160  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

speeds  with  safety  than  would  be  possible  with  the  feeble 
glimmer  of  oil  lamps. 

The  generator  employed  and  its  mode  of  action  may 
be  easily  understood.  It  consists  of  a  water  tank  and 
separate  compartments  for  carbide  and  as  soon  as  the 
two  come  in  contact  the  chemical  begins  to  decompose  and 
acetylene  gas  is  liberated  while  lime  dust  collects  in  the 
bottom  of  the  generator  as  a  residue.  The  gas  collects 
in  a  reservoir  and  forces  its  way  through  a  filter  chamber 
filled  with  wool  or  similar  material  which  filters  the  gas. 
The  gas  is  also  cooled  before  it  reaches  the  lamps  because 
the  gas  outlet  pipe  and  filter  is  surrounded  with  water. 
When  the  shut-off  valve  is  opened  it  permits  the  water 
which  is  carried  in  the  upper  chamber  to  drop  into  the 
carbide  basket  through  a  perforated  tube.  If  the  pressure 
in  the  intermediate  compartment  is  normal  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  water  will  drop  freely  onto  the  carbide  until 
considerable  gas  is  liberated.  The  generator  will  continue 
to  supply  gas  as  long  as  the  supply  of  water  and  carbide 
lasts.  The  jarring  produced  by  car  movement  sifts  the 
lime  to  the  bottom,  and  tends  to  keep  the  carbide  crystals 
clean  so  they  may  be  readily  acted  upon  by  water.  The 
generator  must  be  cleaned  after  every  trip  in  which  it 
is  used  and  all  lime  dust  removed  and  carbide  remaining 
freed  of  dust.  The  best  method  of  piping  is  shown  at  Fig. 
47,  the  water  separator  being  a  fitting  that  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  owner  as  it  is  not  supplied  with  the  car. 
This  keeps  water  out  of  the  pipe  line  and  prevents  lamps 
from  flickering. 

Electric  Lighting  for  Ford  Cars. — Many  owners  of  Ford 
cars  have  fitted  electric  lights  instead  of  the  kerosene 
lamps  and  gas  lights  regularly  furnished  up  to  this  year. 
A  number  of  attachments  have  been  offered  designed  to 


63 


161 


162  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

fit  the  gas  head  lights;  these  consist  of  parabolic  re- 
flectors and  electric  bulbs  intended  to  be  run  from  the 
same  magneto  that  furnishes  ignition  current.  Previous 
to  the  year  1915,  the  Ford  Motor  Company  did  not  recom- 
mend the  use  of  the  magneto  current  for  electric  lighting 
inasmuch  as  it  was  stated  that  this  interfered  with  igni- 
tion. The  1915  Ford  cars,  however,  are  equipped  with 
electric  head  lamps  as  a  regular  fitting,  the  current  being 
derived  from  the  Ford  magneto,  which  has  been  rede- 
signed with  a  view  to  using  larger  magnets  and  thus  pro- 
ducing more  electrical  energy  than  is  needed  for  ignition 
purposes.  As  electrical  lighting  is  general  on  all  makes 
of  cars  and  has  so  many  advantages,  many  Ford  owners 
have  fitted  up  their  own  electric  lighting  systems  by  pro- 
curing fittings  available  on  the  open  market.  The  writer 
desired  to  use  electric  side  and  tail  lamps  instead  of  the  oil 
lamps  regularly  furnished,  but  owing  to  the  warning  of  the 
manufacturer  of  the  car,  no  attempt  was  made  to  utilize 
the  magneto  current  for  this  purpose.  A  6-volt,  80-am- 
pere  hour  storage  battery  was  installed  under  the  rear 
seat  to  furnish  current.  This  proved  to  be  thoroughly 
practical  as  it  was  only  necessary  to  charge  the  battery 
once  a  month.  A  number  of  fittings,  which  are  illustrated 
as  they  may  be  of  value  to  the  Ford  owner  who  contem- 
plates fitting  electric  lighting,  are  shown  at  Fig.  48.  The 
application  of  a  simple  fitting  to  convert  the  square  oil 
side  light  to  an  electric  side  light  is  shown  at  A.  This 
has  an  advantage  inasmuch  as  the  oil  burner  may  be  used 
in  event  of  failure  of  the  source  of  current.  The  same 
fitting  may  be  applied  to  the  tail  lamp.  At  B,  a  very 
compact  side  light  is  shown.  The  tail  light  is  practically 
the  same  design  except  that  it  is  smaller  and  has  a  red 
lens  instead  of  the  white  glass  in  the  door.     If  electric 


163 


1 


164  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

current  from  storage  battery  is  provided  small  fixtures 
as  shown  at  C  may  be  used  for  illuminating  the  speed- 
ometer dial  while  portable  search  lights  such  as  shown  at 
E  and  D  will  assist  in  locating  engine  trouble  and  repair- 
ing tires  after  dark.  The  trouble  light  shown  at  D  has 
a  cigar  lighter  attached  which  w^ould  be  found  very  con- 
venient by  the  smoker.  The  combination  of  tail  lamp 
supporting  bracket  and  number  plate  holder  shown  at  F 
is  also  very  practical  fitting. 

A  section  through  a  typical  high  grade  electric  head 
light  is  shown  at  G.  This  is  supplied  in  cases  where  the 
motorist  does  not  wish  to  use  a  make-shift  reflector  to 
convert  the  gas  lamps.  A  6-volt,  80-ampere  battery  will 
furnish  enough  current  to  operate  two  electric  side  lights, 
two  moderate  power  head  lights  and  a  tail  lamp  for 
periods  ranging  from  two  weeks  to  a  month  without  re- 
charging, the  service  rendered  being  of  course  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  night  riding  done.  For  those  who 
wish  only  to  use  the  side  lamps  and  tail  lamps  of  tlie 
electrical  form,  special  low  voltage  bulbs  may  be  ob- 
tained that  will  burn  very  satisfactorily  on  dry  cell  bat- 
tery current.  These  bulbs  are  not  sufficiently  powerful 
for  head  lights,  however,  so  some  motorists  fit  electrical 
head  lights  taking  the  current  from  the  magneto  and  de- 
pend on  the  dry  battery  only  for  the  side  and  tail  lamps. 
Twelve  dry  cells  wired  in  series-multiple  combination  in 
which  three  sets  of  four  joined  in  series  are  wired  in  mul- 
tiple, will  form  a  j^ractical  battery  for  use  with  the  low 
voltage  bulbs.  A  simple  wiring  diagram  showing  the 
method  of  coupling  three  lamps  with  the  controlling  switch 
and  battery  wired  in  is  shown  at  Fig.  49. 

The  usual  method  of  wiring  head  lights  is  to  run  a 
wire  from  the  magneto  terminal  to  a  one  point  SAvitch  on 


Tools  and  Supplies  for  Tire  Repairs         165 

the  dash,  from  the  switch  to  one  side  of  the  left  head  light 
double  contact  bulb.  The  head  light  bulb  is  then  joined 
to  its  neighbor,  the  free  terminal  of  which  is  grounded  to 
the  frame  side  member.  This  means  that  the  lamps  are 
wired  in  series,  this  being  done  to  permit  the  use  of  six 
or  seven-volt  lamps  which  are  a  standard,  easily  procured 
size  and  at  the  same  time  insures  against  burning  them  out 
due  to  excess  voltage  generated  at  high  engine  speeds.  If 
the  head  lights  are  connected  to  the  storage  battery  they 
should  be  wired  in  multiple  instead  of  series,  just  as  the 
side  lamps  are  in  Fig.  49.  Separate  switches  should  be 
provided  for  the  head  lights,  side  light,  and  tail  lamp  cir- 
cuits, inasmuch  as  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  all  lamps  at 
the  same  time.  While  the  tail  light  must  be  kept  burning 
at  all  times,  it  can  be  used  in  connection  vdth  the  side 
lamps  for  city  driving  and  these  can  be  extinguished  and 
only  the  head  lights  used  for  cross  country  work. 

Tools  and  Supplies  for  Pneumatic  Tire  Restoration. — It 
has  been  previously  stated  that  one  of  the  chief  disad- 
vantages of  pneumatic  tires  has  been  their  liability  of 
failure  by  puncturing  the  outer  casing  and  penetrating 
the  inner  tube  and  thus  providing  a  means  for  escape  of 
the  compressed  air  in  the  inner  tube.  The  life  of  a  pneu- 
matic tire  is  decidedly  uncertain  and  will  depend  on  many 
factors  outside  of  those  of  purely  natural  wear.  There 
have  been  cases  where  outer  casings  have  given  satisfac- 
tory service  for  seven  or  eight  thousand  miles,  but  these 
instances  have  been  exceptions  rather  than  the  rule.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  most  motorists  who  have  had  practical 
experience  that  if  an  ordinary  set  of  shoes  will  give  a 
service  averaging  four  thousand  miles  that  they  are  equal 
to  the  demands  made  upon  them  and  that  they  are  satis- 
factory.    It  may  be  stated  that  tires  will  last  longer  on 


Complete  Repair 
Outfit 


Casing  Release  Device 


Acid  Cure  Outfit 


Fig.  50. — Tools  and  Supplies  for  Pneumatic  Tire  Maintenance,  Applica- 
tion and  Repair. 
166 


Tools  and  Supplies  for  Tire  Repairs         167 

light  cars  like  the  Ford  than  on  heavy  ones  and  the  service 
obtained  from  tires  fitted  to  automobiles  driven  at  low 
and  moderate  speeds  will  be  much  greater  than  that  ob- 
tained from  tires  fitted  to  high  speed  vehicles.  There  is 
also  a  personal  element  which  must  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration, and  that  is  the  way  that  the  car  is  driven  and 
the  care  taken  of  the  shoes  and  inner  tubes.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  in  all  cars  using  pneumatic  tires  to  cany 
a  certain  amount  of  equipment  for  handling  and  repairing 
these  on  the  road.  A  typical  outfit  is  shown  at  Fig.  50, 
this  supplementing  two  spare  outer  casings,  and  two  extra 
inner  tubes  for  replacement  purposes.  Included  in  the 
repair  outfit  are  a  blow-out  sleeve,  a  number  of  patches 
and  an  acid-cure  vulcanizing  outfit  for  applying  them. 
Tire  irons  are  provided  to  remove  the  casing  from  the 
rim ;  the  jack  is  used  to  raise  the  wheel  of  the  vehicle  on 
which  the  defective  tire  is  installed  from  the  ground  and 
make  it  possible  to  remove  the  tire  completely  from  the 
wheel.  The  air  pump  is  needed  to  inflate  the  repaired  tube 
or  the  new  member  inserted  to  take  its  place.  Talcum 
powder  is  provided  to  sprinkle  between  the  casing  and 
the  tube  to  prevent  chafing  or  heating,  while  the  spare 
valves  and  valve  tool  will  be  found  useful  in  event  of  dam- 
age to  that  important  component  of  the  inner  tube.  As 
it  is  desirable  to  inflate  the  tires  to  a  certain  definite  pres- 
sure, a  small  gauge  which  will  show  the  amount  of  com- 
pression in  the  tire  is  useful. 

The  outfit  shown  may  be  supplemented  by  other  forms 
of  vulcanizing  sets  and  by  special  tire  irons  to  make  for 
easier  removal  of  the  outer  casing.  Tire  irons  vary  in 
design,  and  most  makers  of  tires  provide  levers  for 
manipulating  the  casings,  which  differ  to  some  extent. 
A  set  of  tire  irons,  such  as  would  be  needed  with  a  clincher 


168  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

tire  equipment,  could  be  selected  from  the  forms  shown 
at  Fig.  50.  That  shown  near  the  gauge  is  utilized  to  loosen 
the  clincher  bead  from  under  the  rim  should  it  become 
rusted  in  place.  After  the  shoe  has  been  loosened  from  the 
rim  flange,  levers  of  the  form  shown  at  or  below  it  would 
be  inserted  under  the  bead  in  order  to  lift  it  over  the  rim. 
Two  or  more  of  these  Ifevers  are  necessary,  the  long  ones 
being  more  easily  operated  than  the  short  ones.  The 
length  of  the  lever  provided  will  depend  entirely  upon 
the  size  of  the  tire  to  be  removed.  Motorists,  as  a  rule, 
should  carry  one  of  the  releasing  levers  shown,  two  of  the 
short  members  depicted  and  one  longer  lever.  The  latter 
may  be  a  combination  form,  which  can  be  used  as  a  jack 
handle  as  well  as  a  tire  iron,  and  then  it  is  not  necessary 
to  carry  a  jack  handle  in  the  equipment.  The  flattened 
ends  are  generally  employed  for  prying  the  bead  from 
the  clincher  rim,  and  when  this  has  been  done  and  suffi- 
cient space  exists  between  the  bead  and  the  rim  to  insert 
the  curved  end  of  the  large  levers,  considerable  leverage  is 
obtained  and  the  bead  may  be  lifted  over  the  clincher  rim 
without  undue  exertion.  The  object  of  rounding  the  cor- 
ners, and  of  making  the  working  portions  as  broad  as  pos- 
sible, is  to  reduce  the  liability  of  pinching  the  inner  tube, 
which  would  be  present  if  the  irons  had  sharp  edges. 

The  tire  repair  material  is  sometimes  carried  in  a  spe- 
cial case,  as  shown  at  top  of  Fig.  50,  this  consisting  of  all 
parts  necessary  to  make  temporary  repairs,  to  be  consid- 
ered in  proper  sequence.  This  outfit  is  sometimes  sup- 
plemented by  other  special  tools.  A  knife  is  needed  to 
cut  the  rubber,  trim  patches,  etc.  The  stitcher  and  roller 
are  useful  in  rolling  the  patch  after  it  has  been  cemented 
to  the  tire  to  insure  adhesion  of  the  patch  firmly  against 
the  damaged  portion  of  the  tube  while  the  cement  is  dry- 


Removing  and  Applying  Tires 


169 


ing.  Some  motorists  carry  a  small  fiame-beated  vulcanizer 
in  order  to  effect  more  permanent  repairs  than  would  be 
possible  with  the  simx:>le  patching  processes  in  which  only 
the  adhesive  powers  of  dry  cement  are  available. 


Casing 


Bead 
Raised 


Rim 


B 


Bead  Clear 
of  Rim 


i 


Fig.  51. — Showing  Method  of  Releasing  Clincher  Casing  from  Rim. 
A. — Inserting  the  Tire  Iron.  B. — Raising  the  Bead.  C. — Working 
the  Clincher  Bead  Over  the  Edge  of  the  Rim.  D. — Method  of  Guid- 
ing Bead  Over  the  Rim. 

Tire  Manipulation  Hints. — In  removing  or  replacing 
onter  casings  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  not  to 
injure  the  shoe  or  pinch  the  inner  tube.  The  first  step 
is  to  jack  up  the  wheel  from  which  the  defective  tire  is 
to  be  removed,  thus  relieving  the  wheel  of  the  car  weight. 


170  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

The  valve  inside  is  then  unscrewed  in  order  to  allow  any 
air  that  may  remain  in  the  tube  to  escape,  and  then  the 
lock  nuts  on  the  valve  stem  are  removed  so  that  this  mem- 
ber may  be  lifted  to  release  the  clincher  beads  from  the 
rim  channels.  If  the  tire  is  stiff  or  has  not  been  removed 
for  some  time,  a  special  iron  is  utilized  to  loosen  the  edges 
and  the  beads  are  pushed  clear  of  the  clincher  rim. 

When  the  casing  has  been  loosened  on  one  side,  a  flat 
tool,  as  shown  at  Fig.  51,  A,  is  inserted  under  the  loose 
bead  to  act  as  a  pry  or  lever  to  work  the  edge  of  the  casing 
gradually  over  the  rim.  Very  long  levers  are  necessary 
to  handle  new  stiff  tires,  and  unused  casings  are  particu- 
larly hard  to  move.  The  shorter  irons  may  be  employed 
on  shoes  which  have  been  used  for  some  time  and  which 
are  more  pliable  than  the  new  ones.  Two  of  the  levers 
are  generally  used  together,  one  being  kept  under  the 
loosened  edge  of  the  bead,  while  the  other  is  used  to  force 
the  bead  over  the  edge  of  the  rim.  When  the  outside  edge 
of  the  bead  has  been  forced  over  the  rim  at  all  points  the 
inner  tube  is  lifted  from  the  rim  and  is  pulled  out  of  the 
shoe.  The  start  at  removing  is  made  at  the  point  diamet- 
rically opposite  the  valve  stem.  When  this  portion  has 
been  pulled  clear  of  the  rim  and  out  of  the  easing  it  is  not 
difficult  to  pull  the  rest  of  the  tube  out  and  finally  lift  the 
valve  stem  out  of  the  hole  through  which  it  passes  in  the 
wheel  felloe,  and  take  the  inner  tube  entirely  off  the  wheel. 
If  the  casing  demands  attention,  or  if  a  new  shoe  is  to  be 
used,  the  inside  bead  is  worked  over  the  channel  of  the 
clincher  rim  in  just  the  same  manner  as  was  done  with 
the  outside  bead,  and  after  a  start  has  been  made  and  a 
portion  of  the  inside  bead  forced  over  the  rim  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  slipping  the  entire  shoe  from  the  wheel. 

Applying  a  tire  is  just  the  reverse  to  removing  one. 


Innery 
Tube 


Fig.  52. — Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Tire  Irons  in  Removing  and 
Replacing  Outer  Casings  on  Clincher  Rims  at  A  and  B.  How 
Inner  Tube  May  Be  Pinched  if  Tire  Iron  is  Carelessly  Manipulated 
at  C.  Inner  Tube  May  Be  Pinched  if  Placed  iu  Casing  Without 
Being  Partially  Inflated  as  at  D. 


171 


172  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

The  first  operation  is  to  place  tlie  inner  bead  of  the  tire 
in  place  in  the  center  of  the  rim  by  forcing  it  over  the  out- 
side flange.  This  is  done  gradually,  and  in  order  to  force 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  shoe  it  may  be  necessary 
to  use  long  levers  when  the  greater  part  of  the  casing  has 
been  applied.  The  next  step  is  to  work  the  shoe  gradually 
toward  the  inner  channel  of  the  rim,  then  to  insert  the  air 
tube.  The  inner  tube  is  replaced  after  it  has  been  par- 
tially inflated  by  putting  the  valve  stem  in  first  and  then 
inserting  the  rest  of  the  tube,  being  careful  not  to  pinch 
it  under  the  beads. 

After  the  inner  tube  has  been  put  in  place,  the  outer 
bead  of  the  tire  is  worked  over  the  edge  of  the  rim  chan- 
nel. Care  must  be  exercised  to  insure  that  the  inner  tube 
will  not  be  pinched  by  the  sharp  edges  of  the  tire  levers, 
as  at  Fig  52,  C.  The  object  of  partially  inflating  the  inner 
tube  is  to  distend  it  so  there  are  no  loose  or  flabby  por- 
tions that  are  liable  to  catch  under  the  tire  bead  when 
this  is  being  forced  in  place  over  the  wheel  rim,  as  at  Fig. 
52,  D.  The  conventional  method  of  inflating  tires  by  using 
a  foot  pump  does  not  always  insure  that  they  will  receive 
adequate  inflation,  and  when  a  pump  is  employed  it  is  im- 
perative that  some  form  of  gauge  be  provided  that  will 
register  the  amount  of  pressure  inside  of  the  tire  in  order 
that  it  will  reach  the  figure  recommended  by  the  tire  mak- 
ers. Different  methods  of  tire  inflation  have  been  devised 
which  eliminate  the  necessity  of  using  manually  operated 
pumps.  Obviously,  a  simple  expedient  would  be  to  pro- 
vide a  small  power-driven  pump  that  could  be  actuated 
by  any  convenient  mechanical  connection  with  the  engine 
or  a  spark  plug  pump.  Another  method  is  to  use  an  air 
bottle,  which  is  a  steel  container  in  which  air  is  stored 
under  great  pressure.     The  air  is  compressed  to  such  a 


Tire  Bepair  and  Maintenance  173 

point  that  a  tank  less  than  two  feet  long  and  six  inches 
in  diameter  will  furnish  sufficient  air  to  inflate  seven  or 
eight  rear  tires  or  twelve  front  ones.  The  tanks  may  be 
exchanged  at  small  cost,  when  exhausted,  for  new  con- 
tainers holding  a  fresh  supply  of  air.  In  some  tanks,  gases 
of  various  kinds  under  high  pressure  are  used,  and  the 
motorist  may  obtain  these  on  the  same  basis  as  air  bottles 
are  supplied. 

All  devices  of  this  character  are  fitted  with  gauges  to 
indicate  the  amount  of  pressure  in  the  tire,  and  to  prevent 
overinflation.  If  a  tire  is  not  properly  inflated  the  shoe 
will  be  liable  to  various  kinds  of  road  damage  and  Avill  be 
easily  punctured,  while  if  the  pressure  is  too  high  the  shoe 
is  liable  to  ''blow-out"  at  any  weak  point  in  the  structure. 
A  tire-pressure  gauge  is  a  very  necessary  article  of  equip- 
ment in  any  car,  and  its  proper  use  when^  blowing  up  tires 
will  insure  the  best  possible  results  if  the  schedule  recom- 
mended by  the  tire  manufacturers  is  adhered  to.  Ford 
front  tires  should  be  inflated  to  60  pounds,  the  rear  ones 
to  70  pounds  pressure.  The  rule  is  20  pounds  for  every 
inch  of  tire  width. 

Tire  Repair  and  Maintenance. — The  common  causes  of 
tire  failure  that  the  motorist  is  apt  to  encounter  are  shown 
at  Fig.  53.  The  most  common  is  natural  wear  of  the  tread 
portion  of  the  tire.  The  rubber  compound  in  contact  with 
the  road  surface  wears  away  in  time,  and  the  fabric  layers 
which  constitute  the  breaker  strips  are  exposed!  The  shoe 
is  weakened  and  any  sharp  object  in  the  road  is  apt  to 
penetrate  the  Aveakened  case  and  puncture  the  inner  tube. 
If  a  number  of  the  layers  of  fabric  comprising  the  body 
of  the  shoe  are  cut  this  constitutes  a  weak  place  in  the 
casing  and  a  blow-out  will  result,  because  the  few  layers  of 
fabric  remaining  do  not  have  sufficient  strength  to  resist 


174 


Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Worn  Tread 


Stone  Bru 


Sand  Blister 


^ij^-— Chafed  Side 


Leaky  Valve- 


-  Rim  Cut 


Blow-out 


Fig.  53. — Cross  Section  of  Typical  Clincher  Tire  Showing  Defective 
Points  that  Demand  Attention  When  Eestoring  Tires  to  Proper 
Condition. 

the  air  pressure.  A  stone  bruise  is  caused  by  tlie  removal 
of  a  portion  of  the  rubber  tread  by  a  sharp  stone,  piece 
of  glass,  etc.,  and  is  much  more  serious  than  a  puncture, 


Repair  of  "Blow  Out"  In  Casing  175 

because  it  removes  some  of  the  tire,  whereas  in  ordinary 
cases  of  puncture  a  sharp  object  merely  penetrates  the 
casing.  A  sand  blister  is  produced  by  sand  or  grit  from 
the  road  working  into  a  space  in  the  tire  between  the  tread 
and  the  fabric  body  through  some  neglected  incision  or 
bruise.  The  side  of  the  tread  is  often  chafed  by  running 
the  tires  against  curbstones  or  by  driving  in  a  car  track. 
Eim  cutting  is  generally  caused  by  insufficient  inflation, 
which  permits  the  rim  to  cut  into  the  tire  and  thus  tends 
to  sever  the  bead  from  the  side  of  the  shoe. 

The  chief  inner  tube  trouble  is  penetration  of  the  wall 
by  some  sharp  object,  or  the  folding  over  of  part  of  the 
tube  walls  when  the  tire  was  applied.  The  parts  of  the 
check  valve  sometimes  give  trouble  and  the  valve  leaks. 
In  cases  of  valve  trouble  it  is  usually  cheaper  to  replace 
the  valve  inside  than  it  is  to  attempt  to  fix  it.  Some  of 
the  causes  of  valve  leakage  are  hardening  of  the  rubber 
washer,  bent  stem,  which  prevents  the  valve  from  seating 
properly,  or  a  particle  of  dust  or  other  foreign  matter 
which  would  act  to  keej^  the  valve  from  closing  the  air 
IDassage  positively. 

The  most  serious  condition  that  a  motorist  will  meet 
with  is  a  "blow-out,"  and  usually  only  temporary  re- 
l^airs  can  be  made  on  the  road.  The  common  methods  of 
restoring  a  defective  outer  casing  are  depicted  at  Fig. 
54.  In  this,  an  inner  sleeve,  which  is  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  plies  of  fabric,  is  placed  betw^een  the  inner  tube 
and  the  broken  portion  of  the  outer  casing  to  prevent 
]oinching  of  the  inner  tube  by  the  jagged  edges  of  the  cut. 
To  strengthen  the  casing  from  the  outside,  an  outer  shoe 
or  gaiter  made  of  leather  is  laced  around  the  shoe.  The  ^ 
object  of  using  both  inside  and  outside  reenforcing  mem- 
bers in  combination  is  to  not  only  strengthen  the  weak 


176 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


outer  casing  but  by  providing  an  outer  shoe  dirt  is  kejDt 
from  working  into  the  tire. 

Punctured  inner  tubes  may  be  temporarily  repaired  by 
using  a  cemented  surface  patch.  The  first  step  necessary 
is  to  clean  the  surface  of  the  tube  very  thoroughly  with 


Breah  in  Casing 


Outer  Shoe 


Inner  Sleeve 


Outer  Casing 


Inner  Sleeve  with  Hoohs 


Fig.  54. — Showing  the  Application  of  Inner  and  Outer  Casing  Sleeves 
as  a  Temporary  Repair  for  Ruptured  Outer  Casings. 


gasoline  and  then  to  rough  up  the  surface  of  both  patch 
and  that  portion  of  the  tube  surrounding  the  hole  with  a 
wire  scratch  brush  or  with  sandpaper.  After  the  surfaces 
are  properly  cleaned  and  roughened  the  patch  and  the  tube 
are  coated  with  suitable  patching  cement,  which  is  allowed 
to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  the  second  coat  is  ap- 
plied. The  second  coat  is  allowed  to  become  ^' tacky," 
which  expresses  a  condition  where  the  cement  is  almost 


Tire  Bepairs  By  Vulcanizing  Process         177 

dry  and  yet  still  possesses  a  certain  degree  of  adhesive- 
ness. Tins  requires  about  ten  minutes'  time  on  an  aver- 
age. The  patch  is  applied  to  the  cemented  portion  of  the 
tube  and  the  whole  is  clamped  firmly  together  to  secure 
positive  adhesion  while  the  cementing  medium  is  drying. 
Patches  should  always  be  of  sufficient  size  to  cover  the 
damaged  portion  and  at  the  same  time  have  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  or  more  of  the  patch  at  all  sides  of  the 
orifice. 

Very  satisfactory  repairs  to  both  inner  and  outer  cas- 
ings of  a  pennanent  nature  can  be  made  by  using  small 
portable  vulcanizers,  which  may  be  heated  by  either  elec- 
tricity, steam  or  by  burning  gasoline  in  them.  "When  these 
are  used  a  special  vulcanizing  cement  is  necessary,  and 
uncured  rubber  stock  must  be  used  for  patching  or  filling 
openings  caused  by  punctures  or  blow-outs.  The  patch  of 
raw  material  is  applied  to  the  cemented  surface  of  tube  or 
casing  and  the  vulcanizer  heated  to  the  proper  tempera- 
ture. The  heat  of  the  vulcanizer  causes  the  rubber  of  the 
patch  to  unite  perfectly  with  the  old  material  and  forms 
an  intimate  bond.  In  vulcanizing  the  most  important  pre- 
caution is  to  maintain  a  proper  temperature.  Too  great 
a  degree  of  heat  will  burn  the  rubber,  while  a  proper  cure 
cannot  be  effected  if  the  temperature  is  too  low.  The  tem- 
peratures recommended  for  vulcanizing  vary  from  250  to 
325  degrees  F.  The  lower  degree  of  heat  is  used  for  work- 
ing material  that  has  been  previously  cured,  while  the 
higher  temperature  is  recommended  for  new  rubber. 

The  rules  to  secure  satisfactory  operation  from  pneu- 
matic tires  may  be  easily  summed  up.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  imperative  that  the  tires  be  inflated  to  the  pressures 
recommended  by  the  manufacturers.  The  tires  should  be 
kept  clean  and  free  from  oil  or  grease,  because  the  oleagi- 


178  Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

nous  substances  used  for  lubrication  very  quickly  attack 
rubber  compounds  and  cause  crumbling  and  rapid  deterio- 
ration. Oil  or  grease  should  be  wiped  off  as  soon  as 
noticed  and  the  tire  cleaned  by  application  of  gasoline. 
Any  small  cuts  or  openings  in  the  tire  that  may  permit 
water  to  enter  or  sand  to  work  between  the  fabric  and  the 
tread  will  cause  trouble  in  time  and  should  be  tilled  with 
rubber  comjiound  as  soon  as  noticed.  One  should  be  care- 
ful in  driving  not  to  apply  the  brakes  too  suddenly,  be- 
cause this  will  lock  the  wheels  and  wear  the  tires  flat  in 
spots  very  quickly.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  drive  in 
car  tracks,  and  when  highways  do  not  have  the  proper 
surface  they'  should  be  negotiated  very  carefully  to  avoid 
cutting  the  casings. 

Typical  Special  Tool  Equipment. — The  makers  of  all  the 
popular  cars,  especially  those  that  are  produced  in  any 
quantity,  furnish  special  tools  for  the  use  of  their  repair 
men  or  for  those  employed  in  the  service  stations  of  the 
agents.  As  an  example  of  the  special  tools  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  obtain  the  assortment  used  by  repairmen  of  Ford 
Model  T  cars  is  shown  at  Fig,  55.  The  device  at  A  is  a 
wheel  puller  designed  to  go  on  the  hub  in  place  of  the  hub 
cap.  The  tools  shown  at  B,  C,  D,  F,  G  and  D2  form  part 
of  the  regular  tool  equipment.  The  box  wrench  at  E  is 
also  furnished  with  each  car,  and  is  a  hub  cap  wrench  hav- 
ing one  end  formed  to  fit  the  slabbed  portion  of  the  front 
wheel  bearing  adjusting  cone  lock  nut. 

A  valve  spring  lifter  is  shown  at  H,  while  a  valve  seat 
reamer  is  shown  at  I.  The  valves  are  turned  while  grind- 
ing by  the  special  brace  S,  which  can  be  used  on  all  of  the 
valves  except  the  one  on  the  rear  cylinder,  which  is  imme- 
diately under  the  dash  board.  To  turn  this  valve  the  spe- 
cial wrench  shown  at  L  is  provided.    A  special  T  handle 


179 


180  The  Ford  3Iodel  T  Car 

socket  wrench  for  liandling  %''  nuts  or  bolt  heads  such  as 
used  on  the  rear  construction  and  various  other  points  is 
shown  at  J.  AT  handle  screw  driver  for  the  set  screws 
which  are  employed  in  retaining  the  camshaft  bearings  is 
shown  at  0.  The  puller  shown  at  E  is  for  removing  the 
cam  gear  from  the  camshaft,  while  that  at  Q  is  a  trans- 
mission clutch  puller.  The  brace  shown  at  R  is  a  special 
socket  wrench  for  %"  bolt  nuts.  The  brace  shown  at  T  is 
employed  for  removing  the  magnet  retaining  screws  in 
the  magneto  assembly.  The  tire  irons  at  A-2,  the  tool  roll 
at  B,  the  pump  at  D-1  and  the  spark  plug  socket  wrench  at 
D-2  are  all  parts  of  the  regular  tool  equipment  furnished 
with  each  car. 

The  simple  fitting  shown  at  W  is  a  piston  ring  com- 
pressor employed  to  compress  the  rings  in  the  piston 
grooves  to  facilitate  easy  assembly  in  the  cylinder  block. 
A  number  of  special  socket  wrenches  are  shown  at  X,  Y, 
Z,  A-1,  C-1,  C-2  and  C-3.  These  are  all  intended  for  use 
on  the  various  fastenings  used  in  holding  the  parts  to- 
gether. For  example,  that  at  X  is  a  socket  wrench  for 
the  crank  shaft  main  bearing  bolt  nuts.  That  at  Y  is  for 
%'''  bolt  heads  or  nuts.  The  wrench  at  Z  is  for  removing 
the  cylinder  head  retaining  bolts.  The  wrench  for  remov- 
ing the  pinion  drive  shaft  housing  retaining  stud  nuts  is 
shown  at  C-1,  this  being  used  for  %''  nuts.  The  rear  axle 
housing  bolt  nut  wrench  is  shown  at  C-2,  while  the  form 
outlined  at  C-3'  is  similar  to  that  shown  at  C-1,  except  that 
it  fits  ^Vi2"  nuts.  The  special  end  wrench  at  M  is  for  the 
flywheel  retention  cap  screws,  that  at  IT  is  for  removing 
the  large  cam  gear  lock  nut,  while  that  at  B-1  is  a  regular 
open  end  wrench  for  %"  nuts.  The  prices  on  these  tools 
are  so  low  that  it  is  cheaper  to  purchase  from  the  factory 
than  to  attempt  to  make  them. 


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181 


182  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

A  Typical  Engine  Stoppage  Analyzed. — Before  describ- 
ing the  points  that  may  fail  in  the  various  auxiliary  sys- 
tems, it  will  be  well  to  assume  a  typical  case  of  engine 
failure  and  show  the  process  of  locating  the  trouble  in  a 
systematic  manner  by  indicating  the  various  steps  which 
are  in  logical  order  and  which  could  reasonably  be  fol- 
lowed. In  any  case  of  engine  failure  the  ignition  system, 
motor  compression  and  carburetion  should  be  tested  first. 
If  the  ignition  system  is  functioning  properly  one  should 
determine  the  amount  of  compression  in  all  cylinders,  and 
if  this  is  satisfactory  the  carbureting  group  should  be 
tested.  If  the  ignition  system  is  working  properly  and 
there  is  a  decided  resistance  in  the  cylinders  when  the 
starting  handle  is  turned,  proving  that  there  is  good  com- 
pression, one  may  suspect  the  carburetor. 

It  is  possible  that  the  inlet  manifold  may  be  loosely 
beld  or  cracked,  that  an  exhaust  valve  is  stuck  on  its  seat 
because  of  a  broken  or  bent  stem.  Failure  of  the  cam- 
shaft drive  because  the  teeth  are  stripped  from  the  engine 
shaft  or  cam-shaft  gears;  or  because  the  key  or  other 
fastening  on  either  gear  has  failed,  allowing  that  member 
to  turn  independently  of  the  shaft  to  which  it  normally 
is  attached,  is  very  rare.  The  gasoline  feed  pipe  may  be 
clogged  or  broken,  the  fuel  supply  may  be  depleted,  or  the 
shut-off  cock  in  the  gasoline  line  may  have  jarred  closed. 
The  gasoline  filter  screen  or  sediment  bulb  may  be  filled 
with  dirt  or  water,  which  prevents  passage  of  the  fuel.  The 
defects  outlined  above,  except  the  failure  of  the  gasoline 
supply,  are  uncommon,  and  if  the  container  is  found  to 
contain  fuel  and  the  pipe  line  to  be  clear  to  the  carburetor, 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  vaporizing  device  is  at  fault. 
If  fuel  continually  runs  out  of  the  mixing  chamber  the  car- 
buretor is  said  to  be  flooded.    This  condition  results  from 


Typical  Engine  Stop  Analyzed  183 

failure  of  the  shut-off  needle  to  seat  properly  or  from  a 
gasoline  soaked  cork  float.  It  is  possible  that  not  enough 
gasoline  is  present  in  the  float  chamber.  If  the  passage 
controlled  by  the  float  needle  valve  is  clogged  or  if  the 
float  was  badly  out  of  adjustment,  this  contingency  would 
be  probable.  AYhen  the  carburetor  is  examined,  if  the 
gasoline  level  appears  to  be  at  the  proper  height,  one 
may  suspect  that  a  particle  of  lint,  dust,  fine  scale  or  rust 
from  the  gasoline  tank  has  clogged  the  bore  of  the  fuel 
passage. 

On  cranking  the  motor  slowly  over  by  hand,  if  one 
cylinder  has  poor  compression  while  all  others  have  good 
compression  the  trouble  may  be  due  to  a  defective  condi- 
tion either  inside  or  outside  of  that  cylinder.  The  external 
parts  may  be  inspected  more  easily,  so  the  follomng  should 
be  looked  for :  a  broken  valve,  a  warped  valve  head,  broken 
valve  springs,  sticking  or  bent  valve  stems,  dirt  under 
valve  seat,  leak  at  cylinder  head  packing  or  spark  plug  gas- 
ket, cracked  cylinder  head  (rarely  occurs),  leak  through 
cracked  spark  plug  insulation,  valve  plunger  stuck  in  the 
guide,  lack  of  clearance  between  valve-stem  end  and  top 
of  plunger.  The  faulty  compression  may  be  due  to  de- 
fects inside  the  motor.  The  piston  head  may  be  cracked 
(rarely  occurs),  piston  rings  may  have  lost  their  elasticity 
or  have  become  gummed  in  the  grooves  of  the  piston  or 
the  piston  and  cylinder  walls  may  be  badly  scored  by  a 
loose  wrist  Y>m  or  by  defective  lubrication.  The  Ford  mo- 
tor is  a  type  with  a  separately  cast  head  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  gasket  or  packing  between  the  cylinder  and  com- 
bustion chamber  may  leak,  either  admitting  water  to  the 
cylinder  or  allowing  compression  to  escape.  This  may  be 
corrected  by  tightening  all  the  retaining  bolts  firmly  to 
seat  the  head  against  the  gasket. 


184 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


Conditions  That  Cause  Failure  of  Ignition  System. — If  tlie 
first  test  of  the  motor  had  showed  that  the  compression 
was  as  it  should  be  and  that  there  was  no  serious  mechan- 
ical defects  and  there  was  plenty  of  gasoline  at  the  car- 
buretor, this  would  have  demonstrated  that  the  ignition 
system  was  not  functioning  properly.  If  a  battery  is  em- 
ployed as  an  auxiliary  supply  of  current,  the  first  step  is 


COIL  VIBRATOR 


CASOL/NE 
ADJUSTMENT 


SPARK 
COIL 
BOX 


Fig.  57. — Method  of  Testing  Regularity  of  Engine  Action  "by  Holding 

Down  Coil  Vibrators. 

to  take  the  spark  plugs  out  of  the  cylinders  and  test  the 
system  by  turning  over  the  engine  by  hand,  with  the  switch 
circuit  closed.  If  there  is  no  spark  in  any  of  the  plugs, 
this  may  be  considered  a  positive  indication  that  there  is 
a  broken  main  current  lead  from  the  battery,  a  defective 
ground  connection,  a  loose  battery  terminal,  or  a  broken 
cell  connector.    If  none  of  these  conditions  are  present,  it 


TcHiing  Battery  Strength 


185 


is  safe  to  say  that  the  battery  is  no  longer  capable  of  de- 
livering- current.  If  there  is  no  spark  at  the  plugs,  but 
the  spark-coil  vibrator  functions  properly,  this  shows  that 
the  i)rimary  wiring  is  as  it  should  be  and  that  the  fault 


Amperemeter 


Zinc 


Zinc_ 
Can 


^m    ^^ 


:^--a 


Carbo 


Pitch 


,Carbc 


.1 


Depolarizer 


Fig.  58. — Sectional  View  of  Dry  Cell  Showing  Interior  Construction  at 
A  and  Method  of  Testing  Current  Output  With  Amperemeter  at  B. 

must  be  looked  for  in  either  the  wires  comprising  the  sec- 
ondary circuit,  or  at  the  plugs.  The  spark  plugs  may  be 
short  circuited  by  cracked  insulation  or  carbon  and  oil 
dei)osits  around  the  electrodes.  The  secondary  wires  may 
be  broken  or  have  defective  insulation,  which  permits  the 
current  to  ground  to  some  metal  part  of  the  frame  or 
motor.    The  battery  strength  should  be  tested  with  a  volt 


186  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

or  ampere  meter  to  determine  if  the  voltage  and  amperage 
is  sufficient.  Storage  battery  capacity  is  usually  gauged 
by  measuring  the  voltage,  while  dry  cells  are  judged  by 
their  amperage.  A  storage  battery  should  show  over  two 
volts  per  cell  or  6.5  volts  in  a  three-cell  group,  ^vhile  dry 
batteries  that  indicate  less  than  six  amperes  per  cell  are 
not  considered  reliable  or  satisfactory  for  ignition  servdce. 
Look  also  at  the  magneto  contact  plunger  to  make  sure  it 
is  clean  and  not  gummed  up  or  held  away  from  its  seat 
by  a  small  shred  from  the  brake  lining.  If  there  is  no 
vibration  at  the  coil  tremblers  the  trouble  may  be  due  to 
weak  current  source,  broken  or  loose  magneto  wire,  broken 
timer  wires,  or  defective  connections  at  the  vibrator  or 
commutator  contact  points.  The  electrodes  of  the  spark 
plug  may  be  too  far  apart  to  permit  a  spark  to  overcome 
the  resistance  of  the  compressed  gas,  even  if  a  spark  jumps 
the  air  space  when  the  plug  is  laid  on  the  cylinder.  In 
some  cases  the  trouble  has  been  due  to  the  switch,  which 
did  not  contact  properly.  In  others,  the  spring  keeping 
the  timer  case  in  place  loosened  and  the  timer  case  was  not 
making  proper  contact  with  engine.  It  should  always  be. 
in  firm  contact  with  the  engine  base  to  secure  positive  elec- 
trical contact  between  timer  roll  carrier  and  segments  in 
timer  case. 

If  the  motor  runs  intermittently,  i.e.,  starts  and  runs 
only  a  few  revolutions,  aside  from  the  conditions  pre- 
viously outlined,  defective  operation  may  be  due  to  seizing 
between  parts  because  of  insufficient  oil  or  deficient  cool- 
ing, too  much  oil  in  the  crank  case,  which  fouls  the  cylin- 
ders after  the  crank  has  revolved  a  few  turns,  and  derange- 
ments in  the  ignition  or  carburetion  systems  that  may  be 
easily  remedied.  There  are  a  number  of  defective  condi- 
tions which  may  exist  in  the  ignition  group,  that  will  result 


How  To  Locate  ''Shipping"  Cylinder        187 

in  ''skipping"  or  irregular  operation,  and  the  following  is 
the  logical  order  in  which  the  various  points  should  be  in- 
spected: the  parts  w^hich  demand  inspection  oftenest  are 
considered  first ;  weak  source  of  current  due  to  worn-out 
dry  cells  or  discharged  storage  batteries;  weak  magnets 
in  magneto;  dirt  or  gummed  oil  in  timer  casing,  broken 
spring  on  timer  roll  carrier,  or  x^oor  contact  at  magneto 
current  collecting  plunger.  A  dirty  or  cracked  insulator  at 
spark  plug  will  cause  short  circuit,  and  can  only  be  detected 
by  careful  examination.  The  following  points  should  also 
be  checked  over  when  the  plug  is  inspected:  Excessive 
space  between  electrodes,  points  too  close  together,  loose 
central  electrodes,  or  loose  point  on  plug  body,  soot  or  oil 
particles  between  electrodes,  or  on  the  surface  of  the 
insulator. 

How  To  Locate  "Skipping"  Cylinder. — If  irregular  engine 
action  is  due  to  poor  ignition  and  the  trouble  seems  local- 
ized to  some  particular  cylinder,  it  is  very  easy  to  locate 
the  member  at  fault  by  holding  down  the  coil  vibrators  as 
sho^\^l  at  Fig.  57.  The  engine  is  run  with  a  late  spark  and 
with  the  throttle  about  half  open  and  three  of  the  vibra- 
tors are  held  down  at  a  time,  leaving  the  engine  running 
on  one  cylinder  only.  It  may  often  be  found  that  three  of 
the  cylinders  are  functioning  properly  and  that  only  one 
is  at  fault,  which  in  this  case  means  that  the  trouble  is 
present  either  at  the  spark  plug  or  to  some  condition  in 
that  cylinder  other  than  faulty  ignition.  The  engine  will 
run  on  one  cylinder  when  three  of  the  coil  vibrators  are 
held  down,  the  object  being  to  discover  the  weak  or  faulty 
cylinder  by  putting  those  that  are  running  properly  out 
of  action  temporarily.  When  all  three  vibrators  that  be- 
long to  the  cylinders  that  are  working  i)roperly  are  held 
down  the  engine  will  not  run  with  the  vibrator  serving  the 


188 


The  Ford  3Iodel  T  Car 


Fibre  or  Hard  Kubber 


Fig.  59.— Showing  Methods  of  Adjusting  Air  Gaps  in  Spark  Plugs. 

cylinder  that  is  at  fault  free.  Some  repairmen  hold  down 
only  two  of  the  vibrators  and  let  the  engine  run  on  the 
remaining  one  or  two  cylinders.     This  is  in  cases  where 


Spark  Plug  Bepairs  189 

the  mixture  adjustment  may  be  faulty  euougli  so  that  one 
cylinder  will  not  suffice  to  keep  the  engine  in  operation. 

Spark  Plug  Faults. — After  the  "missing"  cylinder  has 
been  located  either  hj  the  method  of  holding  down  the 
vibrators  or  by  short  circuiting  each  of  the  cylinders  in 
turn  by  using  a  screw  driver  as  indicated  at  Fig.  59,  A  to 
connect  the  insulated  terminal  of  the  spark  plug  to  some 
metal  portion  of  the  engine,  the  next  step  is  to  remove 
the  spark  plug  and  examine  it  carefully  for  various  faults. 
On  some  cars  using  high  tension  magneto  ignition  and  on 
some  Fords  that  have  been  fitted  over  in  this  way  by  their 
owners  it  is  not  easj^  to  detect  irregular  engine  action,  as 
no  vibrators  are  used  that  may  be  utilized  as  indicators  of 
correct  engine  action.  In  this  case  the  simple  tool  shown 
at  Fig.  59,  B  may  be  used.  This  consists  of  two  strips  of 
brass  riveted  together  and  fastened  into  a  fiber  or  hard 
rubber  handle  as  shown.  These  make  a  very  effective 
short  circuiting  medium  and  entirely  eliminate  the  danger 
of  shock  present  when  a  screw  driver  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. If  the  plug  is  dirty  the  point  should  be  cleaned  with 
an  old  toothbrush  dipped  in  gasoline  or  with  a  special 
spark  plug  brush  made  for  the  purpose  as  outlined  at 
Fig.  56,  H. 

If  the  plug  is  extremely  dirty  it  should  be  taken  apart, 
which  should  be  easily  done  by  removing  the  porcelain 
retaining  bushing  that  fits  the  main  steel  shell  and  then 
taking  the  porcelain  out  of  the  shell  member.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  drop  any  of  the  copper  asbestos  gaskets 
used  on  both  sides  of  the  porcelain  shoulder.  The  carbon 
deposits,  which  are  usually  of  an  oily  nature,  may  be  easily 
removed  from  the  porcelain  or  shell  interior  with  the  small 
blade  of  a  jack  knife,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
scratch  the  glazed  surface  of  the  porcelain,  as  this  pennits 


190  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

the  insulator  to  absorb  oil.  All  parts  of  the  plug  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  with  gasoline  and  wiped  dry  with 
a  clean  rag.  "When  reassembling  the  plugs  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  bushing  holding  the  porcelain  in  place  is  not 
tightened  too  much,  as  this  may  crack  the  insulator.  It  is 
also  important  that  the  distance  between  the  spark  points 
should  be  no  more  than  ^2",  which  is  about  the  thickness 
of  a  worn  dime.  Some  plugs  have  a  center  terminal,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  59,  C.  These  are  easily  handled  by  pushing 
the  center  rod  over  until  it  bears  the  proper  relation  to 
the  aperture  in  the  plug  base. 

The  standard  form  of  plug  used  on  Ford  cars  is  shown 
at  Fig.  59,  D.  With  this  construction  the  air  gap  is  main- 
tained at  the  proper  point  by  moving  the  center  stem  as 
conditions  demand.  A  cracked  insulator  must  be  replaced 
with  a  new  one,  and  if  the  bent  electrode  is  found  loose  in 
the  plug  shell  this  should  be  firmly  retained  in  place  by 
jamming  a  portion  of  the  metal  surrounding  it  toward  the 
wire  with  a  sharp  prick  punch.  The  method  of  using  a 
doubled  over  jDiece  of  fine  emery  cloth  to  brighten  the  plug- 
points  to  insure  the  easy  passage  of  the  ignition  sjDark  is 
clearly  shown  at  Fig.  59,  E.  The  spark  plug  should  be 
tested  after  it  is  assembled  by  connecting  it  to  the  spark 
plug  wire  and  laying  it  on  the  cylinder  in  such  a  way  that 
only  the  steel  shell  is  in  contact  with  the  metal  jDarts  of  the 
engine.  The  engine  is  then  cranked  over  by  hand  with 
the  switch  on  the  coil  box  in  the  battery  position  if  these 
members  are  provided  and  the  plug  watched  to  see  if  a 
spark  occurs  between  the  points  at  regular  intervals.  If 
the  spark  plugs  foul  up  quickly  the  trouble  is  usually  due 
to  too  much  lubricating  oil  in  the  engine,  worn  piston  rings, 
which  allow  the  oil  to  reach  the  combustion  chambers,  the 
use  of  poor  quality  oil  or  too  rich  fuel  mixture. 


Ignition  System  Faults  191 

Faults  in  Other  Ig-nition  System  Parts. — "\ATien  testing  a 
dry  battery,  the  terminals  should  be  gone  over  carefully 
to  make  sure  that  all  terminal  nuts  are  tight  and  that  there 
are  no  loose  or  broken  connectors.  The  wiring  at  the  coil, 
timer,  and  switch  should  be  inspected  to  see  that  all  con- 
nections are  tight  and  that  the  insulation  is  not  chafed  or 
cracked.  Defective  insulation  will  allow  leakage  of  cur- 
rent, while  loose  connections  make  for  irregular  operation. 
In  testing  a  storage  battery  care  should  be  taken  to  remove 
all  the  verdigris,  or  sulphate,  from  the  terminals  before 
attaching  the  testing  wires.  The  strength  of  the  Ford 
magneto  can  be  determined  by  the  Hoyt  magnetometer,  a 
device  specially  made  for  this  purpose.  In  the  Ford  sys- 
tem a  vibrator  coil  is  employed,  so  the  trembler  platinum 
contact  points  should  be  examined  for  pits,  or  carbonized 
particles  that  would  interfere  with  good  contact.  If  defec- 
tive, they  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  surfaces 
of  the  platinum  point  on  both  vibrator  spring  and  adjust- 
ing screw  should  be  filed  smooth  to  insure  positive  con- 
tact. The  tension  of  the  vibrator  spring  should  not  be  too 
light  or  too  heavy,  and  the  vibrator  should  work  rapidly 
enough  to  make  a  sharp,  buzzing  sound  when  contact  is 
established  at  the  timer.  The  adjusting  screw  should  be 
tight  in  the  vibrator  bridge,  and  when  proper  spring  ten- 
sion is  obtained  the  regulating  screw  should  be  locked 
firmly  to  prevent  movement,  if  an  automatic  lock  is  not 
provided,  as  on  Heinze  coils. 

If  the  vibrator  operates  satisfactorily,  but  there  is  a 
brilliant  spark  between  the  vibrator  points  and  a  poor 
spark  at  the  spark  plug,  one  may  assume  that  the  coil 
condenser  is  punctured.  Short  circuits  in  the  condenser 
or  internal  wiring  of  induction  coils  or  magnetos,  which 
are  fortunately  not  common,  can  seldom  be  remedied  ex- 


192  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

cept  at  the  factory  where  these  devices  were  made.  If  an 
engine  stops  suddenly  and  the  defect  is  in  the  ignition 
system,  the  trouble  is  usually  never  more  serious  than  a 
broken  or  loose  wire.  This  may  be  easilj^  located  by  in- 
sj)ecting  the  wiring  at  the  terminals.  Irregular  operation 
or  misfiring  is^  harder  to  locate,  because  the  trouble  can 
only  be  found  after  the  many  possible  defective  conditions 
have  been  checked  over,  one  by  one. 

Common  Defects  in  Fuel  Systems. — Defective  carburetion 
often  causes  misfiring  or  irregular  operation.  The  de- 
rangements of  the  components  of  fuel  system  that  are 
common  enough  to  warrant  suspicion  and  the  best  meth- 
ods for  their  location  follows :  First,  disconnect  the  feed 
pipe  from  the  carburetor  and  see  if  the  gasoline  flows 
freely  from  the  tank  when  the  shut-off  valve  is  opened 
again.  If  the  stream  coming  out  of  the  pipe  is  not  the 
full  size  of  the  orifice  it  is  an  indication  that  the  pipe  is 
clogged  with  dirt  or  that  there  is  an  accumulation  of  rust, 
scale,  or  lint  in  the  strainer  screen  of  the  filter  or  that  the 
sediment  bulb  is  filled  with  foreign  matter.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible that  the  fuel  shut-off  valve  may  be  wholly  or  partly 
closed.  Wlien  the  gasoline  flows  by  gravity  the  liquid  may 
be  air  bound  in  the  tank  on  account  of  a  plugged  vent  hole 
in  filler  cap. 

If  the  gasoline  flows  from  the  pipe  in  a  steady  stream 
the  carburetor  demands  examination.  There  may  be  dirt 
or  water  in  the  float  chamber,  which  will  constrict  the  pas- 
sage between  the  float  chamber  and  the  spray  opening,  or 
a  particle  of  foreign  matter  may  have  entered  and  clogged 
the  fuel  inlet.  The  float  lever  may  bind  on  its  guide  pin, 
the  needle  valve  regulating  the  gasoline  inlet  o]3ening  in 
bowl  may  stick  to  its  seat.  Any  of  the  conditions  men- 
tioned would  cut  down  the  gasoline  supply  and  the  engine 


Hoxi)  To  Adjust  Carburetor  193 

would  not  receive  sufficient  quantities  of  gas.    The  gasoline 
adjusting  needle  may  be  loose  and  jar  out  of  adjustment. 
Air  may  leak  in  through  the  manifold,  due  to  a  porous 
casting,  or  leaky  joints  due  to  poor  gaskets  or  loose  re- 
taining stirrups  and  dilute  the  mixture.    Water  or  sedi- 
ment in  the  gasoline  will  cause  misfiring  because  the  fuel 
feed  varies  when  the  water  or  dirt  constricts  the  pipe  bore. 
It  is  possible  that  the  carburetor  may  be  out  of  adjust- 
ment.   If  clouds  of  black  smoke  are  emitted  at  the  exhaust 
pipe  it  is  a  positive  indication  that  too  much  gasoline  is 
being  supplied  the  mixture,  and  the  supply  should  be  cut 
do^^^l  by  screwing  down  the  needle  valve  and  by  making 
sure  that  the  fuel  level  is  at  the  proper  height  in  the  float 
bowl.    If  the  mixture  contains  too  much  air  there  will  be 
a  pronounced  popping  back  in  the  carburetor.     When  a 
carburetor  is  properly  adjusted  and  the  mixture  delivered 
to  the  cylinders  burns  properly,  the  exhaust  gas  will  be 
clean  and  free  from  the  objectionable  odor  present  when 
gasoline  is  burned  in  excess.     If  the  mufifler  cut-out  has 
been  provided  by  the  owner  the  character  of  combustion 
may  be  judged  by  the  color  of  the  flame  which  issues  from 
it  when  the  engine  is  running  with  an  open  throttle  after 
niglitfall.    If  the  flame  is  red,  it  indicates  too  much  gaso- 
line.   If  yellow^ish,  it  shows  an  excess  of  air,  while  a  prop- 
erly proportioned  mixture  will  be  evidenced  by  a  blue 
flame,  such  as  given  by  a  gas  stove  burner. 

Defects  in  Oiling  and  Cooling  Systems. — While  troubles 
existing  in  the  ignition  or  carburetion  groups  are  usually 
denoted  by  imperfect  operation  of  the  motor,  such  as  lost 
power  and  misfiring,  derangements  of  the  lubrication  or 
cooling  systems  are  usually  evident  by  overheating,  dimi- 
nution in  engine  capacity,  or  noisy  operation.  Over-heat- 
ing may  be  caused  by  poor  carburetion  as  much  as  by  ' 


194  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

deficient  cooling  or  insufficient  oiling.  When  the  oiling 
group  is  not  functioning  as  it  should  the  friction  between 
the  motor  parts  produces  heat.  If  the  cooling  system  is  in 
proper  condition,  as  mil  be  evidenced  by  the  height  of 
the  water  in  the  radiator,  and  the  carburetion  group  ap- 
pears to  be  in  good  condition,  the  overheating  is  probably 
caused  by  some  defect  in  the  oiling  system. 

The  Ford  oiling  system  is  so  simple  that  practically  the 
only  condition  that  will  cause  defective  oiling  is  lack  of 
oil  in  the  engine  case  or  the  use  of  poor  grade  lubricant. 
The  use  of  dirty  oil  will  also  produce  overheating  and 
may  result  in  trouble  with  bearings  or  cylinder  walls  cut- 
ting. Grooved  cylinder  walls  permit  the  hot  gases  to  blow 
by  the  piston  rings  and  overheating  results.  Sometimes 
the  internal  oil  conduit  or  pipe  running  from  the  back  end 
of  the  crank  case  to  the  front  may  be  partially  clogged 
with  gummed  oil  or  wax  particles  from  the  oil.  This  pipe 
should  be  cleaned  out  by  a  blast  of  compressed  air  at  high 
pressure  from  time  to  time.  It  can  be  reached  from  the 
top  of  gear  case  when  the  cover  casting  is  removed.  The 
oil  collecting  wells  that  direct  the  lubricant  to  the  main 
bearings  may  fill  with  dirt  or  other  matter,  such  as 
gummed  oil,  which  prevents  proper  quantities  from  reach- 
ing the  bearings.  This  condition  is  apt  to  occur  if  the 
crank  case  is  not  drained  out  and  cleaned  from  time  to  time 
as  recommended. 

Deposits  in  Radiator  and  Piping. — The  form  of  radiator 
most  generally  used  at  the  present  time  has  a  number  of 
very  narrow  passages  through  w^hicli  the  water  must  jDass 
in  going  from  the  upper  compartment,  into  which  it  is 
discharged  after  leaving  the  motor  cylinders  to  the  lower 
compartment,  where  it  collects  after  being  cooled  and 
from  which  it  is  drawn  by  the  circulating  pump.     The 


Removing  Tncrustatiori  195 

water  used  in  some  localities  for  cooling  contains  much 
matter,  either  in  suspension  or  solution,  which  will  form 
scale  or  a  powdery  deposit  in  the  radiator  tubes.  It  does 
not  take  much  scale  to  seriously  reduce  the  ratio  of  heat 
conduction  between  the  heated  water  inside  of  the  tube 
and  the  cooling  air  currents  which  are  circulated  about 
their  exterior.  As  Ford  cylinders  are  of  cast  iron,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  rust  will  be  present  in  the  water  jacket, 
and  this  also  may  get  into  the  radiator  piping. 

If  an  anti-freezing  solution  using  some  salt  as  a  basis, 
such  as  calcium  chloride,  is  employed,  after  this  has  been 
circulated  through  the  radiator  and  piping  for  a  time  it 
may  deposit  solid  matter  in  the  form  of  crystals.  Anti- 
freezing  solutions  that  include  glycerine  may  have  a  chemi- 
cal action  due  to  the  acid  sometimes  found  in  the  cheaper 
commercial  grades  of  glycerine  employed  for  this  purpose. 
This  chemical  action  results  in  the  deterioration  of  the 
water  jacket  walls,  and  also  contributes  to  the  rust  deposit. 

For  cleaning  out  water  spaces  of  a  radiator  a  solution 
of  potash  or  caustic  soda  may  be  used.  This  will  cut  the 
rust  and  some  forms  of  scale,  and  will  dissolve  them  or 
loosen  them  sufficiently  so  the  deposits  may  be  thoroughly 
flushed  out  with  water  or  steam  under  pressure.  The  solu- 
tion \d\\  work  more  rapidly  if  it  is  brought  to  the  boiling 
point  before  placing  it  in  the  radiator.  The  solution  is 
also  valuable  in  removing  rust  from  the  water  jacket  in- 
terior. The  best  action  is  obtained  if  the  caustic  soda  solu- 
tion has  a  strength  of  between  15  and  22  per  cent. 

In  order  to  apply  this  method,  the  whole  of  the  water 
in  the  circulating  system  is  drained  off  and  measured. 
Then  a  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  2i/>  lbs.  of  solid 
caustic  soda  so  that  it  makes  one  gallon  of  solution,  enough 
of  the  solution  being  made  to  fill  the  entire  cooling  system. 


196  Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

Considerable  heat  is  generated  when  the  soda  is  dissolved, 
and  frequent  stirring  is  necessary,  unless  the  soda  is  hung 
in  an  iron  basket  just  under  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
When  the  liquid  has  cooled  it  is  introduced  into  the  cir- 
culating system  until  the  latter  is  entirely  filled.  The  soda 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  system  all  night  and  is  run  out 
in  the  morning.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  caustic 
soda  will  corrode  aluminum  in  other  cars  and  must  not 
be  used  if  the  system  should  have  an  aluminum  pump 
housing.  After  running  out  the  soda  a  hose  pipe  and 
water  supply  should  be  connected  to  the  system  and  a 
good  stream  of  water  driven  through  at  fair  pressure  for 
some  time.    It  will  not  harm  Ford  parts. 

Incrustation  is  most  commonly  caused  by  carbonate  of 
lime,  which  is  held  in  solution  in  some  w^aters  as  a  bicarbo- 
nate ;  therefore,  when  the  water  is  heated  the  carbonic  acid 
is  driven  otf  and  the  carbonate  is  precipitated  in  the  form 
of  a  muddy  deposit,  which  hardens  in  the  presence  of  heat 
into  a  non-conducting  scale  in  those  portions  of  the  water 
jacket  where  the  heat  is  greatest  and  which  remains  in  the 
form  of  a  powdery  deposit  in  the  radiator  tubes,  where 
the  heat  is  not  great  enough  to  harden  the  sediment.  Some- 
times the  deposit  is  sulphate  of  lime,  this  also  being  found 
in  the  water  available  in  some  localities.  The  reason  that 
water  contains  so  many  impurities  is  because  it  is  one  of 
the  best  known  solvents.  Pure  water  is  never  found  'in 
nature  and  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  process  of  distilla- 
tion. The  purest  natural  water  is  rain,  and  if  this  is  col- 
lected before  it  touches  the  earth  it  contains  only  such 
impurities  as  may  be  in  the  air. 

Method  of  Fan  Belt  Adjustment. — If  the  motor  heats  up 
when  the  engine  is  running  and  the  car  standing  still,  it 
is  necessary  to  inspect  the  fan  driving  means  to  make 


Cooling  System  Troubles  197 

sure  tliat  this  is  functioning  j^roperly  and  that  the  fan  is 
turning  all  the  time  the  engine  is  running  and  at  the  proper 
speed.  Ford  cooling  fans  are  flat  belt  driven  and  are 
mounted  on  a  simple  form  of  bracket  that  will  permit  of 
maintaining  the  fan  driving  belt  at  the  proper  tension 
to  insure  positive  rotation  of  the  fan  blades. 

The  fan  belt  tension  may  be  easily  adjusted  by  loosen- 
ing a  lock  nut  on  a  cap  screw  which  bears  against  the  lever 
carrying  the  fan  hub  and  tightening  down  on  the  belt  ten- 
sion regulating  screw  until  the  belt  is  tight  enough  so  that 
a  decided  resistance  ^\i\\  be  felt  due  to  fan  belt  friction 
when  the  fan  is  turned  by  hand.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  tighten  the  fan  belt  too  much,  however,  as  this  will  result 
in  rapid  wear  of  the  belt  and  cause  it  to  stretch  as  well 
as  imposing  some  strain  on  the  fan  hub  bearing.  The  ad- 
justing screw  in  the  fan  bracket  may  be  easily  reached  by 
removing  the  small  brass  cap  which  covers  the  breather 
pipe  at  the  front  end  of  the  engine.  If  the  water  in  the 
radiator  boils  easily  and  the  trouble  is  not  due  to  heavy 
work,  it  is  usuallv  because  the  fan  belt  is  loose. 

Among  some  of  the  troubles  that  ^\i\\  cause  overheating 
are :  too  much  driving  on  low  speed ;  not  enough  lubricat- 
ing oil;  carbonized  cylinders  or  combustion  chambers; 
spark  retarded  too  far ;  clogged  muffler ;  insufficient  lift  to 
exhaust  valves,  poor  carburetor  adjustment,  clogged  ra- 
diator tubes,  fan  not  working  properly  on  account  of 
broken  or  slipping  belt,  and  leaky  piston  rings.  In  ex- 
amining the  cooling  system,  one  should  look  for  a  leaky 
radiator,  jammed  or  broken  radiator  pipes,  bad  connec- 
tions in  the  rubber  hose  used  to  join  radiator  and  water 
jacket,  lack  of  water  and  sediment  in  radiator  or  water 
jacket.  The  Ford  Company  does  not  advise  the  use  of 
nostrums  such  as  corn  meal,  bran  or  other  substances  put 


198  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

into  the  radiator  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  leaks,  as 
these  are  bound  to  hinder  proper  circulation.  The  interior 
walls  of  the  rubber  hose  may  decompose  and  particles  of 
rubber  hang  down,  partially  constricting  the  hose  bore 
and  hindering  the  passage  of  water.  As  new  hose  connec- 
tions are  inexpensive  and  easily  applied,  defective  mem- 
bers should  be  replaced  at  once. 

Adjusting  Transmission. — If  any  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  climbing  hills  on  the  high  speed  and  the  engine 
seems  to  have  adequate  power  it  is  because  the  high  speed 
clutch  is  slipping.  If  the  engine  races  when  the  slow  speed 
pedal  is  pushed  up  as  tight  as  it  will  go  when  climbing 
steep  hills  it  is  because  the  slow  speed  band  in  the  trans- 
mission needs  adjusting.  Should  the  car  show  a  tendency 
to  creep  forward  when  the  crank  is  turned  for  starting 
the  motor,  this  indicates  that  the  clutch  lever  screw  which 
bears  on  the  clutch  lever  cam  has  worn  and  requires  an 
extra  turn  do\^Ti  to  hold  the  clutch  in  neutral  position.  This 
screw  and  the  cam  on  which  it  works  are  clearly  shown  in 
the  lower  portion  of  Fig.  60.  As  will  be  observed,  the 
screw  passes  through  a  boss  on  the  end  of  a  simple  lever, 
the  other  end  of  which  is  joined  to  the  clutch  actuating 
pedal  by  a  simple  rod  and  yoke  connection.  The  lock  nut 
must  be  released  before  attempt  is  made  to  screw  down 
the  clutch  lever  screw,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  screw 
that  do^^Ti  an}^  more  than  absolutely  necessary"  or  the  high 
speed  clutch  will  slip. 

To  make  adjustments  to  the  reverse  or  transmission 
brake  band,  or  to  the  high  speed  clutch,  the  plate  on  the 
transmission  cover  must  be  removed,  this  exposing  the  in- 
terior of  the  transmission,  as  shown  at  Fig.  60.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  remove  the  floor  boards  of  the  car  to  get  at 
this  portion  of  the  power  plant.    In  order  to  simplify  the 


Fig.  60. — Method  of  Adjusting  Transmission  Brake  Band. 

199 


200 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


point  involved,  the  method  of  adjusting  a  high  speed  clutch 
is  shown  at  Fig.  61,  in  which  the  top  half  of  the  transmis- 
sion case  has  been  entirely  removed.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  there  are  three  clutch  fingers  spaced  around  the  front 
end  of  the  transmission  drum.     These  have  set  screws. 


T    \ 


CLUTCH  FINGER 
ADJUSTMENT 


I 


Fig.  61. — How  to  Tighten  Slipping  High  Speed  Clutch. 

through  which  the  pressure  of  the  spring  is  translated  to 
push  members  bearing  against  the  clutch  disc  assembly. 
These  set  screws  are  prevented  from  turning  by  split  pin 
locks.  If  the  high  speed  clutch  is  slipping,  the  split  pin 
on  the  clutch  finger  that  locks  the  set  screw  should  be  re- 
moved and  the  set  screw  given  one-half  or  one  complete 
turn  to  the  right  with  a  screw  driver.    Each  of  the  other 


^t 


Adjusting  Transinission  Bands  201 

set  screws  should  be  turned  exactly  the  same  amount,  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  replace  the  locking  split  pin. 

The  low  speed  band  may  l)e  tightened  without  remov- 
ing the  transmission  cover  plate,  as  an  adjusting  screw  is 
provided  outside  of  the  transmission  case  and  on  the  right 
hand  side.  If  the  slow  speed  band  does  not  hold  positively 
the  lock  nut  on  this  adjusting  screw  may  be  loosened  and 
the  screw  turned  tow^ard  the  right  until  appreciable  re- 
sistance is  felt  when  the  clutch  pedal  is  pushed  way  for- 
ward. This  adjusting  screw  is  shown  in  the  space  between 
the  transmission  case  and  the  exhaust  pipe  in  Fig.  60. 
The  foot  brake  and  reverse  bands  cannot  be  adjusted  with- 
out removing  the  transmission  case  cover  plate,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  60.  Adjusting  nuts  will  be  found  that  may  be 
readily  turned  with  an  S  wrench,  as  indicated,  until  the 
proper  degree  of  band  tension  has  been  obtained  by  bring- 
ing the  ends  closer  together.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
tighten  the  bands  too  much,  as  they  may  drag  on  the  trans- 
mission drum  assembly  when  the  car  is  in  the  high  speed, 
act  as  a  brake  and  tend  to  overheat  the  motor.  The  foot 
brake  should  be  adjusted  tightly  enough,  however,  so  that 
medium  pressure  on  the  foot  pedal  will  stop  the  car  im- 
mediately or  slide  the  rear  wheels  in  case  of  emergency. 
The  reverse  baud  should  be  tightened  in  the  same  way 
as  the  brake  band  is.  If  the  friction  linings  of  the  bands 
are  Avorn  to  such  an  extent  that  adjusting  the  brake  does 
not  seem  to  improve  matters,  they  should  be  removed  and 
relined  with  new  friction  material  so  they  will  engage 
smoothly  without  causing  a  jerky  movement  of  the  car,  as 
'is  unavoidable  with  slipping  bands.  These  linings  are  in- 
expensive and  with  ordinary  good  judgment  a  reverse  and 
slow  speed  band  should  last  at  least  10,000  miles  and  the 
foot  brake  lining  over  5,000  miles.     Instructions  for  re- 


202 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


moving  the  brake  bands  are  given  in  the  next  chapter,  the 
purpose  of  this  paragraph  being  merely  to  explain  the  ad- 
justments possible  on  the  road. 

Adjusting  Loose   Front  Wheels. — At  regular  intervals 
while  the  car  is  in  service  it  is  important  to  examine  the 


Fig.  62.— Testing  for  Front  Wheel  Looseness. 


front  wheels  to  make  sure  that  these  are  retained  prop- 
erly by  the  front  hub  ball  bearings.    The  method  of  test- . 
ing  the  wheel  for  looseness  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  62. 
The  front  axle  is  raised  from  the  ground  by  jacks  and  the 
wheel  is  grasped  at  top  and  bottom  by  the  operator,  who 


Adjusting  Loose  Front  Wheels 


203 


attempts  to  push  the  top  of  the  wheel  in  and  pull  the  bot- 
tom out,  or  the  reverse  of  this  operation.  If  the  spindle  is 
tight  in  the  front  axle  yoke  and  there  is  considerable 
looseness  in  the  wheel  hub,  the  hub  cap  should  be  removed 
and  the  bearinsfs  carefullv  examined.    The  cone  should  be 


'ADJUSTING 
CONE 


^SPECIAL  FORD 
\NRENCH 


Fig.    63. — Showing   Use    of    Special    Ford    Wrench   in    Adjusting   Front 

Wheel  Bearings. 


removed  from  the  spindle  by  pulling  out  the  split  pin  that 
locks  the  castle  nut,  remove  that  member,  as  well  as  un- 
screwing the  cone.  After  the  cone  is  removed  from  the 
threaded  end  of  the  spindle  the  wheel  may  be  readily  with- 
drawn. The  cones  on  both  inner  and  outer  parts  of  the 
spindle  should  be  carefully  examined  to  make  sure  that 


204  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

they  are  not  pitted  or  scored,  and  the  balls  and  races  in 
the  wheels  should  also  be  examined  for  defects.  If  these 
jDarts  are  found  in  proper  condition  the  proper  wheel  ad- 
justment may  be  secured  after  the  wheel  is  replaced  by 
tightening  on  the  wheel  adjusting  cone  up  to  the  point 
where  the  wheel  will  turn  freely  and  have  no  appreciable 
end  play.  After  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  cone  has 
been  secured,  the  lock  nut  and  split  pin  should  be  replaced. 
The  hub  cap  should  be  tilled  with  grease  and  replaced  on 
the  'wheel  hub.  The  interior  construction  of  the  Ford 
front  wheel  may  be  clearly  understood  by  referring  back 
to  Fig.  32,  which  shows  a  sectional  view  of  the  Ford  wheel 
hub  and  ball  bearings  in  place. 

What  To  Do  When  Rear  Brakes  Do  Not  Hold. — After  the 
car  has  been  in  use  for  a  time  trouble  may  be  experienced 
in  holding  it  on  a  grade  by  locking  the  emergency  brake 
hand  lever.  This  is  because  the  rear  brake  shoes  have 
worn  sufificientlj^  so  that  they  do  not  grip  the  brake  drum 
interior  in  a  positive  manner.  In  some  cases  this  wear 
may  be  taken  up  by  shortening  the  rods  running  from  the 
hand  lever  cross  shaft  to  the  brake  cam  levers.  This  may 
be  done  by  the  adjustment  provided  in  threaded  rod  ends. 

The  method  of  testing  the  rear  wheel  brake  is  shown 
at  Fig.  64.  Two  jacks  are  utilized  to  raise  the  rear  axle 
to  have  both  wheels  clear  of  the  ground.  The  hand  brake 
lever  is  then  applied  and  endeavor  is  made  to  move  the 
wheel  by  grasping  opposite  spokes  as  shown,  pushing 
down  on  one  and  pulling  up  on  the  other.  If  the  wheel  can 
be  moved  it  is  a  sign  that  the  brake  shoes  do  not  hold. 
It  is  jDOSsible  to  compensate  for  some  wear  of  the  brake 
shoes  by  shortening  the  rods,  but  it  is  important  when  this 
is  done  to  have  these  of  the  same  length  in  order  that  one 
brake  will  not  take  hold  quicker  than  the  other. 


Removing  Rear  Wheel 


205 


To  examine  the  brakes  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
wheel,  which  is  done  by  taking  off  the  retention  or  clamp- 
ing nut  from  the  end  of  the  axle  and  then  applying  a  spe- 
cial wheel  puller  in  place  of  the  hub  cap,  as  shown  at  Fig. 
65.     This  wheel  puller  consists  of  a  casting  threaded  to 


Fig.   64. — Method  of  Testing  Rear  Wheel  Brakes,  Also  Wear  in  Axle 

Bearings. 


fit  the  wheel  hub  at  its  lower  end  and  carrying  a  set  screw 
at  the  closed  end.  After  the  wheel  puller  body  is  properly 
screwed  onto  the  hub  and  a  clamp  screw  tightened  to  make 
sure  that  the  puller  body  will  not  come  off  and  strip  the 
threads,  the  wheel  may  be  forced  off  of  the  taper  by  screw- 
ing in  on  the  set  screw  with  a  large  monkey  w^rench  fur- 
nished with  the  Ford  tool  outfit,  at  the  same  time  keeping 


206 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


the  wheel  puller  body  from  turning  with  the  hub  caj) 
wrench.  If  any  difficulty  is  experienced  in  removing  the 
wheel  after  a  certain  amount  of  tension  is  obtained  by 
screwing  in  the  set  screw,  a  few  sharp  blows  with  a  wooden 


CLAMP  SCRE. 


Fig.  65. — How  to  Use  Wheel  Puller  for  Removing  Wheel  From  Taper 

Axle  End. 


mallet  or  lead  hammer  on  the  head  of  the  set  screw  and 
a^Dplied  in  the  direction  of  the  axle  will  loosen  the  wheel. 
After  the  wheel  is  removed  the  brake  shoes  may  be 
readily  examined  as  they  are  exposed,  as  shown  at  Fig.  QQ. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  the  slipping  is  caused  by  oil 
deposits  rather  than  wear.     In  this  case  the  slipping  is 


Beplaciug  Worn  Brake  Shoes 


207 


easily  remedied  by  cleaning  out  the  interior  of  the  brake 
drum  and  the  faces  of  the  brake  shoes  thoroughly  with 
gasoline.  If  tlie  shoes  show  signs  of  wear,  which  can  be 
ascertained  by  noting  if  some  portions  are  worn  thinner 
than  others,  new  brake  shoes  should  be  obtained  and  in- 


BRA/C£  ACTUATING  ROD 


Fig.   66. — Wheel  Removed  to  Show  Internal  Expanding  Brake 

Construction. 


stalled  in  place  of  the  worn  members.  All  that  holds  the 
brake  shoe  assembly  is  one  retention  bolt  carried  hj  the 
])late  at  the  end  of  the  axle.  When  this  bolt  is  removed 
the  brake  shoe  assembly  can  be  pulled  away  from  the  axle 
and  the  expander  cam.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  replace  worn 
shoes  with  new  ones,  which  are  inexpensive,  than  to  at- 


208  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

tempt  to  get  further  service  from  the  worn  brake  shoes 
by  building  upon  the  faces,  which  are  in  contact  with  the 
expander  cam,  as  sometimes  advised,  or  by  attempting  to 
apply  a  facing  of  sheet  metal  to  the  brake  shoes.  When 
new  cast  iron  shoes  are  installed  the  wheel  should  be 
pushed  on  the  axle  taper  and  turned  around  with  the  hand 
brake  lever  in  neutral  position  to  make  sure  that  there 
are  no  rough  spots  that  will  bear  against  the  brake  drums 
and  cause  friction,  make  a  squeaking  sound,  and  produce 
heating  of  the  brakes  when  the  car  is  running  forward 
on  the  high  speed.  If  any  rough  spots  are  found  they 
should  be  smoothed  off  with  a  file.  When  reassembling  the 
wheel  care  should  be  taken  that  the  key  used  to  drive  the 
wheel  is  in  j^lace  and  that  the  hub  is  bedded  tightly  on  the 
taper  by  the  retaining  nut,  which  must  be  screwed  on 
tightly  and  locked  with  a  split  pin  to  prevent  it  backing  off. 
If  the  brake  shoes  have  been  rej^laced  after  the  actuating 
rods  have  been  shortened  several  times  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  these  rods  must  be  lengthened  again  to  normal 
length  when  new  brake  shoes  are  fitted. 


CHAPTER  V 

OVERHAULINCx  AND  REPAIRIXG  IMECHANISM 

Faults  in  Power  Plant  and  Symptoms — Value  of  System  in  Overhauling 
— How  to- Take  Down  jNIotor — Carbon  Dei^osits  and  Their  Removal — 
How  to  Repair  Cracked  Water  Jacket — Reseating  and  Trueing  Valves 
— ilethod  of  Valve  Grinding — Inspection  of  Piston  Rings — Piston 
Ring  Manipulation — Fitting  Piston  Rings — Wrist  Pin  Wear — Inspec- 
tion and  Refitting  of  Engine  Bearings — ^Ivnocking  Indicates  Loose 
Bearings — Adjusting  ]Main  Bearings — Scraping  Bearings  to  Fit^ — 
Eebabbitting  Connecting  Rod — Testing  Bearing  Parallelism — Camshafts 
and  Timing  Gears — How  to  Time  Valves  in  Ford  Engines — Repairing 
Ford  Magneto — Packings  and  Gaskets  for  Ford  Engines — Precautions 
in  Reassembling  Parts — How  to  Take  Down  Transmission — Relining 
Brake  Bands — Rear  Axle  Troubles  and  Remedies — Care  of  Springs — 
Steering   Gear   Repairs — Miscellaneous   Chassis   Parts. 

Aftee  any  automobile  lias  been  in  use  for  a  time,  even 
if  it  bas  always  been  driven  very  carefully  and  oiled 
regularly  according  to  tbe  makers'  instructions  a  certain 
amount  of  depreciation  will  exist  in  the  mechanism  and 
the  car  can  only  be  ]mt  in  good  condition  again  by  a 
thorough  overhauling  process..  This  is  work  for  the 
skilled  mechanic  or  owner  with  mechanical  inclinations  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools  rather  than  the  average 
owner  or  driver.  The  writer  will  endeavor  to  give  suffi- 
ciently clear  instructions  however,  so  that  the  Ford  owner 
who  knows  how  to  handle  common  tools  and  who  has  a 
general  knowledge  of  common  mechanical  processes  will 
be  able  to  make  many  of  the  repairs  mentioned  in  this 
chapter.  To  further  facilitate  an  understanding  of  the 
descriptive  matter  photographs  have  been  taken  of  numer- 

209 


210  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

ous  parts  of  the  Ford  chassis  mechanism  in  various  stages 
of  assembly  and  careful  study  of  these  will  give  even  the 
non-mechanical  owner  some  information  that  may  be  of 
value. 

Wlien  a  car  needs  overhauling  it  gives  notice  that 
this  attention  is  needed  by  readily  recognized  sjanptoms. 
For  example,  the  engine  will  lack  its  customary  power  and 
speed  and  hills  that  could  formerly  be  negotiated  on  the 
high  gear  can  be  climbed  only  by  the  use  of  the  low 
speed  ratio.  The  engine  will  not  accelerate  properly  nor 
run  regularly  and  it  will  be  noisy  in  action.  The  gears 
will  grind  all  the  time  the  machine  is  in  use  and  the  many 
minor  chassis  parts  that  have  worn  will  rattle  whenever 
the  car  is  operated  on  anj^thing  but  the  best  of  highways. 
The  brake  bands  in  the  transmission  will  have  reached 
the  limit  of  their  adjustment,  the  brakes  in  the  rear  wheels 
will  no  longer  hold  positively  when  the  hand  lever  is 
brought  completely  back  in  its  travel.  The  car  will  not 
be  as  resj)ousive  to  steering  and  considerable  lost  motion 
will  be  evidenced  at  the  steering  wheel  which  must  be 
turned  an  appreciable  amount  in  order  to  start  to  move 
the  wheels.  It  will  be  apparent  that  while  the  car  is  still 
in  an  operative  condition  that  it  is  not  working  efficiently. 
It  is  not  desirable  to  run  it  when  in  need  of  mechanical  re- 
pairs because  the  faulty  parts  are  wearing  more  rapidly 
after  initial  depreciation  sets  in.  The  first  point  to 
consider  will  be  the  restoration  of  the  mechanism  of  the 
power  plant,  after  which  the  repair  of  the  transmission 
and  chassis  parts  will  be  discussed. 

Faults  in  Power  Plant  and  Symptoms. — There  are  a 
number  of  unmistakable  symptoms  that  indicate  deprecia- 
tion of  i^ower  plant  components.  The  most  common  of 
these  is  lost  power,  then  comes  noisy  operation.  If  an  en- 


v 


Sijmptoms  of  Potccr  Plant  Faults  211 

gine  loses  power  it  is  not  always  a  sign  that  it  is  in  need  of 
a  complete  overlianling,  as  the  trouble  may  be  due  to  local 
causes  which  can  be  readily  remedied  without  taking  the 
engine  out  of  the  frame.  If  the  lost  power  is  accompanied 
bv  noisy  action  it  is  safe  to  consider  that  the  trouble 
is  due  to  wear  of  the  motor  parts.  If  an  engine  is  cranked 
over  by  hand  and  the  compression  is  poor,  one  may  assume 
that  either  the  valves  need  grinding  or  that  the  piston 
rings  are  worn  or  the  cylinder  walls  scored.  Back  firing 
in  the  carburetor  or  inlet  pipe,  if  it  is  not  due  to  lean  mix- 
ture, would  be  caused  by  leaky  valves,  the  inlet  valve  not 
closing  properly,  defective  inlet  valve  springs,  or  incorrect 
valve  timing.  If  the  engine  has  no  power  and  the  crank 
case  gets  hot,  this  is  a  sure  indication  of  burned  gas  leak- 
age past  the  piston  rings  which  have  become  worn  or 
broken.  Noisy  action  in  the  engine,  if  not  due  to  carbon 
deposits  or  insufficient  lubrication  would  be  the  result  of 
worn  pistons  and  cylinder  walls,  worn  wrist  pin  bushings 
in  the  piston  bosses,  loose  connecting  rod  bearings  at  the 
crank  shaft,  loose  main  bearings,  flywheel  loose  on  crank 
shaft,  camshaft  driving  gear  loose  on  its  retaining  key,  too 
much  space  between  valve  operating  plungers  and  valve 
stem,  or  loose  camshaft  bearings.  If  the  loss  of  power  is 
accompanied  by  overheating  and  the  cooling  and  lubri- 
cating systems  are  functioning  properly,  trouble  is  prob- 
ably due  to  insufficient  lift  of  the  exhaust  valves  or  the 
muffler  may  be  clogged  with  carbon  deposits,  these  pre- 
venting a  free  exhaust.  The  best  way  to  overhaul  the  en- 
gine is  to  take  it  out  of  the  frame  and  place  it  on  a  bench 
where  it  can  be  reached  handily  and  the  parts  inspected 
more  easily.  Before  describing  the  method  of  taking 
down  the  Ford  motor,  it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  sub- 
ject of  systematic  procedure  in  overhauling,  as  this  is  a 


212 


Tlie  Ford  Model  T  Car 


point  that  is  often  neglected  by  the  professional  repair- 
men as  well  as  the  amateur  mechanic. 

System  in  Overhauling. — Not  a  few  motor  car  owners 
are  backward  in  overhauling  the  motor,  having  in  mind 
continually  the  fear  that  it  will  be  a  difficult  matter  to 


Boxes  for  Small  , 

Drawings 

Instructioi 


Value  Spring  Retaining  Pin 


Fig.    67. — Showing    Method    of    Providing    Boxes    for    Keeping    Parts 
Together  in  Overhauling  Cars  Systematically. 

get  the  parts  together  again  properly.  Wliile  it  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  procedure  to  remove  parts  it  is  quite 
the  opposite  in  assembling  so  that  the  whole  will  be  as  it 
was  originally.  If  a  system  is  followed  throughout  there 
will  be  little  if  any  trouble  in  resetting  the  motor  parts 
or  in  fact  any  parts  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced 
owner  a  few  hints  on  the  subject  that  have  appeared  in 


System  in  Overhauling  213 

Motor  Age  are  given  here.  Before  anything  is  done  to  the 
motor  the  workbench  should  be  put  in  shape.  A  number 
of  boxes  of  varj'ing  sizes  should  be  placed  along  the  back 
of  the  bench  as  shown  in  Fig.  67.  Each  box  is  designed 
to  receive  the  small  parts  of  some  unit  such  as  the  en- 
gine cylinder  parts,  valve  system,  etc.,  and  each  box  should 
be  properly  marked  with,  the  name  of  the  parts  it  is  to 
contain.  In  front  of  each  box  a  spindle  file  should  be 
placed.  These  files  are  to  be  used  for  securing  data  sheets 
upon  which  are  written  notations  concerning  the  various 
adjustments.  Suppose  difficulty  should  arise  in  removing 
a  part,  the  first  question  to  enter  one's  mind  is  "will  it  not 
be  more  difficult  to  return  it  to  position  I ' '  Such  a  condi- 
tion calls  for  a  notation  on  a  slip  of  paper  and  the  exact 
location  of  all  the  parts  drawn  if  necessarj^  In  other 
words  the  files  are  used  for  memory  so  that  the  operator 
will  know  just  how  every  part  in  each  box  was  removed 
and  the  i30sition  it  occupied  with  reference  to  some  other 
object. 

Adjustments  often  are  required  to  be  altered  so  that 
memory  slips  again  are  valuable  in  that  the  original 
adjustment  can  be  jotted  do\\ii.  Aside  from  the  small 
boxes  on  top  of  the  bench  a  large  box  should  be  placed 
underneath.  This  is  to  care  for  large  parts  such  as  intake 
and  exhaust  manifolds,  connecting  rods,  the  fan,  the  car- 
buretor and  other  parts  of  the  assembly.  In  other  words, 
the  large  box  receives  parts  of  which  there  is  no  doubt  as 
to  location.  System  in  removing  parts  will  eventually  lead 
to  a  saving  of  time  when  assembly  is  necessary.  For 
example  when  the  valve  system  is  removed,  the  valves,  the 
springs,  spring  seats  and  the  holding  pins  should  be  kept 
together  as  shown  in  illustration  Fig.  67,  B.  In  removing 
bolts,  the  lock  washer,  the  nut  and  eveiy  ]iart  belonging  to 


Pig.    68. — The    First    Step    in    Removing    the    Ford   Engine   From    the 
Chassis  Is  to  Take  the  Radiator  From  the  Front  of  the  Frame. 

214 


How  to  Take  Down  Motor  215 

the  bolt  should  be  kept  together  as  at  Fig.  67,  C.  Slip 
the  washer  over  the  bolt  and  screw  the  nut  in  place  and 
then  throw  the  whole  into  the  proper  box.  When  the  ^\a'ist 
pins  are  removed  the  clamp  screw  for  holding  the  pin  in 
place  should  be  left  in  the  hole  in  the  connecting  rod  boss. 
When  the  manifolds  are  removed,  instead  of  throwing  the 
holding  nuts  into  one  box  and  the  manifold  in  another, 
screw  the  nuts  back  onto  the  studs  in  the  cylinder.  The 
object  of  all  this  immediate  replacement  is  to  keep  the 
parts  as  near  to  their  proper  places  as  possible  so  that 
when  assembly  begins  the  operator  will  not  be  in  doubt 
as  to  where  to  look  for  a  certain  rod  bolt  or  other  part. 

How  To  Take  Down  Motor. — The  first  step  in  removing 
the  Ford  engine  from  the  frame  is  to  drain  the  water  from 
the  radiator  by  opening  the  petcock  at  the  bottom  and 
while  the  water  is  draining  out  to  disconnect  the  spark 
plug  wires  at  the  top  of  the  motor.  After  the  water  is 
drained  out  the  water  connections  are  unfastened  from  the 
top  of  the  motor  and  the  side  of  the  water  jacket  leaving 
the  hose  and  water  pipes  attached  to  the  radiator  as 
clearly  shown  in  Fig.  68.  The  next  step  is  to  disconnect 
the  radiator  brace  rod  which  holds  it  to  the  dash  by  un- 
screwing it  out  of  the  lug  at  the  top  of  the  radiator.  In 
order  to  unscrew  this  rod  it  will  be  necessary  to  loosen 
the  check  nut  on  the  end  of  the  rod  that  bears  against 
the  dash.  The  two  nuts  that  fasten  the  radiator  to  the 
frame  are  removed  and  the  radiator  may  be  taken  off  and 
placed  to  one  side  of  the  way,  care  being  taken  to  place  it 
in  a  position  where  it  will  not  be  injured  by  tools  or  other 
parts  falling  on  the  cooling  tubes. 

Next  disconnect  the  dash  at  the  two  supporting 
brackets  which  rest  on  the  frame  and  detach  the  steering- 
post  guide  bracket  carried  at  the  left  hand  side  of  the 


216  TJie  Ford  Model  T  Car 

frame.  The  timer  case  or  cover  is  loosened  by  releasing 
the  retaining  clamp  spring  as  shown  In  illustration  and 
the  circular  loom  containing  the  four  timer  wires  running 
to  the  coil  is  released  from  the  small  clamp  that  holds  it  to 
the  frame  member  in  some  cases.  This  makes  it  possible 
to  remove  the  steering  post,  dash,  and  all  the  wiring  as  one 
assembly.  Before  taking  off  the  steering  post  and  dash 
assembly  it  is  necessary  to  disconnect  the  carburetor  con- 
trol, mixture  adjustment  and  timer  cover  advance  rods. 
Then  the  two  bolts  of  the  cap  holding  the  ball  at  the  apex 
of  the  triangular  front  radius  rod  member  are  unscrewed 
from  the  socket  underneath  the  cranio  case.  The  next 
step  is  to  free  the  rear  of  the  engine  from  the  rear  axle 
unit,  which  is  done  by  removing  four  bolts  at  the  universal 
joint  ball  housing.  The  next  step  is  to  turn  off  the  gaso- 
line at  the  tank,  disconnect  the  fuel  supply  pipe  from  the 
carburetor,  and  remove  the  pressed  steel  pans  joining 
the  cylinder  casting  to  the  frame  on  each  side.  The  ex- 
haust manifold  is  uncoupled  from  the  exhaust  pipe  by 
nnscrewing  the  large  brass  packing  nut.  Next  release 
the  cap  of  the  trunnion  bearing  Avhich  supports  the  front 
end  of  the  crank  case  on  the  front  frame  cross  member 
which  is  done  by  unscrewing  the  two  cap  screws  that  hold 
the  cap  in  place.  The  crank  case  supporting  arms  are  at- 
tached to  the  frame  side  members  by  two  bolts  in  each 
arm.  These  bolts  should  be  removed  which  breaks  the 
last  connection  holding  the  motor  ta  the  frame. 

A  stout  rope  is  passed  through  the  opening  between  the 
two  middle  cylinders  and  is  tied  with  some  form  of  i^osi- 
tive  holding  but  quick  releasing  knot.  A  piece  of  2"  x  4" 
studding  or  a  substantial  iron  pipe  about  10  feet  long  is 
passed  through  the  rope.  The  engine  may  be  lifted  out 
of  the  frame  by  three  men,  one  at  each  end  of  the  beam  or 


How  to  Take  Down  Motor 


217 


pipe  while  the  third  man  takes  hold  of  the  starting  crank 
handle  to  steady  the  power  plant  while  it  is  being  lifted. 
If  a  chain  falls  or  portable  crane  is  available  one  man  may 
easily  handle  the  power  plant. 

After  the  engine  is  removed  the  first  step  in  taking  it 
down  is  to  release  the  fifteen  cap  screws  which  hold  the 


Fig.  69. — Showing  Method  of  Removing  Copper  Asbestos  Gasket  Used 
Between  Cylinder  Head  and  Cylinder  Block  Casting  of  the  Ford 
Engine. 


cylinder  head  in  place  and  take  the  head  casting  off.  Next 
the  bottom  plate  on  the  crank  case  is  removed  and  all  the 
connecting  rods  loosened  np  which  permits  of  inishing  the 
pistons  ont  through  the  top  of  the  cylinder  if  desired. 
The  cooling  fan  and  the  fan  belt  are  removed  and  placed 
with  the  radiator  where  thev  will  be  ont  of  the  wav.    At 


218  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

Fig.  68  the  dash  assembly  is  just  loose  enough  to  be  raised 
from  the  frame  when  necessary  and  one  of  the  workmen 
is  loosening  the  cylinder  head  retention  bolts  before  the 
engine  is  lifted  out  of  the  frame  on  account  of  the  superior 
purchase  or  grip  afforded  when  the  engine  is  in  place. 
The  workman  at  the  right  is  loosening  the  fan  bracket 
adjusting  bolt  in  order  to  take  off  the  fan. 

After  the  cylinder  head  is  removed  the  next  operation 
is  to  carefully  take  off  the  gasket  which  will  be  found  on 
top  of  the  cylinder  casting.  This  is  done  by  prying  it 
away  from  the  cylinder  block  gradually  with  a  screw 
driver  or  other  similar  implement.  The  next  step  is  to 
remove  the  inlet  and  exhaust  manifolds  which  is  done  by 
unloosening  the  stirrups  or  clamps  holding  these  in  place 
as  shown  at  Fig.  70.  This  exposes  the  valve  chamber 
covers  which  may  be  removed  as  outlined  at  Fig.  71.  The 
method  of  taking  the  inston  out  through  the  top  of  the  cyl- 
inder head  after  the  connecting  rod  cap  has  been  removed 
from  the  crank  shaft  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  72.  The 
top  half  of  the  transmission  case  is  then  lifted  off,  which 
can  only  be  done  after  the  brake  band  adjustments  have 
been  loosened  up  and  a  number  of  retention  bolts  removed. 
The  final  operation  is  to  take  off  the  pressed  steel  lower 
crank  case  member  which  also  forms  the  lower  portion  of 
the  transmission  case  compartment.  The  appearance  of 
the  bottom  of  the  engine  after  this  is  done  is  clearly  sho^vn 
at  Fig.  73. 

It  is  important  to  keep  all  parts  that  come  from  any 
special  member  together  and  mark  them  so  that  they 
may  be  readily  identified.  Many  experienced  repairmen 
have  the  habit  of  throwing  all  parts  in  a  common  box  and 
then  picking  them  out  as  needed.  While  the  expert  has 
no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  pieces  much  time  is  lost 


Carbon  Deposits  and  licmoval 


219 


in  looking  for  the  various  bolts  and  nuts,  to  say  the  least, 
while  if  the  novice  follows  this  practice  he  will  be  hope- 
lessly confused  and  will  have  difficulty  in  identifying  the 
various  pieces.  If  the  pistons  and  connecting  rods  are  not 
alreadv  marked  thev  should  be  plainly  stamped  with  steel 


Fig.  70. — Method  of  Removing  Iiilet  and  Exbaust  Manifold. 

numbers  or  letters  or  with  a  series  of  prick  punch  marks 
to  make  sure  that  they  will  be  replaced  in  the  same  cylinder 
from  which  they  were  removed. 

Carbon  Deposits  and  Their  Removal. — Mention  has  been 
previously  made  that  carbon  deposits  in  the  combustion 
chamber  are  not  desirable  because  they  are  apt  to  produce 
overheating  and  noisy  operation  and  result  in  diminution 
of  power.    The  knock  produced  by  carbon  is  a  clear  hollow 


220 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


sound,  generally  evidenced  when  climbing  grades  on  the 
high  speed,  especially  after  the  engine  has  become  heated. 
Oarbon  deposits  are  also  indicated  by  a  sharp  knock 
noticed  whenever  the  engine  is  speeded  up  by  opening  the 
throttle.     The  knock  produced  by  having  the  spark  too 


Pig.  71. — Valve  Chamber  Cover  Plates  Must  Be  Removed  to  Gain  Access 

to  the  Valve  Springs. 


far  advanced  is  duller  than  that  which  is  caused  by  carbon. 
A  loose  connecting  rod  knock  sounds  like  the  tapping  of 
steel  with  a  small  hammer  and  is  most  easily  distinguished 
when  a  car  is  allowed  to  coast  down  grade  or  upon  sud- 
denly slowing  up  the  car  from  speeds  of  25  to  30  miles 
an  hour  by  closing  the  throttle.  Looseness  in  the  crank 
shaft  main  bearings  produces  a  knock  which  can  be  best 


Defining  Carbon  Knock 


221 


distinguished  wlien  the  car  is  going  up  hill  or  under  road 
conditions  where  the  engine  is  working  hard.  The  knock- 
ing sound  produced  by  a  loose  piston  is  heard  when  the 
throttle  is  suddenly  opened  and  is  almost  exactly  the  same 
as  a  carbon  knock. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  take  the  engine  entirely  out  of 


Fig.  72. — How  Ford  Piston  May  Be  Withdrawn  Through  Top  of  Motor. 


the  frame  only  to  remove  carbon  or  grind  valves,  though 
if  these  two  processes  are  to  be  done  at  the  same  time  the 
motor  is  overhauled  it  will  be  just  as  well  to  do  all  that  is 
necessary  to  the  engine  after  it  has  been  taken  out  of  the 
frame.  If  one  desires  merely  to  remove  carbon,  the  first 
step  is  to  drain  the  water  out  of  the  radiator  and  to  dis- 
connect the  water  connection  bolts  at  the  cvlinder  head. 


222 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


The  wires  should  he  disconnected  from  the  spark  plugs  in 
the  cylinder  head  and  these  should  be  removed  in  order 
that  they  may  he  cleaned  and  placed  out  of  harm's  way. 
If  the  spark  plugs  are  left  in  the  cylinder  and  a  wrench  is 
applied  to  a  cylinder  head  bolt  and  slips  off,  one  is  very 
likely  to  break  the  insulation  of  the  spark  plug  which  is  of 
porcelain,  a  very  brittle  material.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
remove  the  radiator  when  the  cylinder  head  is  taken  off 


Flywheel 


Stationary  Coils 


Crankshaft 


Revolving 
Magnets, 


Fig.    73. — Bottom    View    of    Ford    Engine    With    Pressed    Steel    Lower 

Crank  Case  Member  Removed. 


for  scraping  carbon  from  the  piston  to23S   or  grinding 
valves. 

After  the  cvlinder  head  has  been  removed  it  should 
be  inverted  on  the  work  bench  and  the  spark  plug  holes 
plugged  up  by  screwing  in  the  plugs.  The  combustion 
chambers  are  then  filled  with  kerosene  which  is  allowed  to 
soak  in  to  soften  the  carbon  deposits  while  those  on  the 
piston  top  are  scraped  off  with  a  putty  knife,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  74.    Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  particles  of 


Removing  Carbon  Deposits 


223 


carbon  from  getting  into  the  cylinders,  bolt  holes  or  water 
jacket  openings.  It  is  evident  that  the  gasket  must  be 
removed  from  the  cylinder  block  as  shown  at  Fig.  69  be- 
fore the  carbon  is  scraped  away.  If  the  carbon  removal 
process  is  to  be  followed  by  valve  grinding  it  will  be  well 


Fig.  7i. — Method  of  Removing  Carbon  Deposits  from  Piston  Top  and 

Cylinder  Block. 


to  take  off  the  inlet  and  exhaust  manifolds  as  shown  at 
Fig.  70  and  the  valve  chamber  cover  plates  as  outlined  at 
Fig.  71.  Care  should  be  taken  in  replacing  the  cylinder 
head  gaskets  to  have  the  pistons  in  the  cylinders  No.  1  and 
No.  4  at  top  center,  using  these  as  guide  members  to  locate 
the  gasket  in  j)osition  and  to  locate  the  cylinder  head  in 
place. 


224  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

Be  sure  to  draw  the  cylinder  bead  retaining  bolts  down 
evenly,  turning  do\\Ti  eacb  one  only  a  few  turns  at  a  time. 
Do  not  tigbten  tbe  bolts  at  one  end  before  tbe  otber,  but 
all  sbould  be  given  tbe  final  turn  to  bed  them  down  at 
practically  tbe  same  time.  Tbe  best  way  is  to  turn  tbose 
in  tbe  center  of  tbe  casting  down  so  tbey  bed  loosely  first, 
then  to  tigbten  one  at  tbe  front  and  one  at  tbe  rear.  After 
tbis  all  of  tbe  bolts  may  be  screwed  down  tigbtly.  After 
tbe  cylinder  bead  is  replaced  tbe  engine  crank  sbaft  sbould 
be  turned  over  witb  tbe  starting  bandle  so  as  to  be  sure 
tbat  tbe  gasket  does  not  project  over  tbe  cylinder  bore, 
wbicb  would  mean  that  tbe  piston  would  bit  it  wben  it  came 
to  tbe  top  of  tbe  stroke.  Before  replacing  tbe  cylinder 
bead  tbe  combustion  chamber  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
out  and  all  carbon  removed  by  scraping.  If  the  kerosene 
b^s  been  used  as  recommended,  in  many  cases  the  carbon 
deposits  may  be  softened  sufficiently  so  they  may  be  wiped 
out  with  a  rag. 

How  to  Repair  Cracked  Water  Jacket. — Tbe  water 
jacket  of  tbe  Ford  engine  cylinder  will  sometimes  become 
cracked  due  to  freezing  of  the  cooling  water  or  perhaps 
as  a  result  of  a  sand -or  blow  hole  which  opens  up  from 
vibration  after  tbe  cylinder  has  been  used  awhile  At  the 
present  time  tbe  usual  joractice  in  repairing  cylinders  is 
to  fill  the  depression  or  crack  with  iron  by  the  autogenous 
welding  process,  although  various  iron  cements  may  be 
used  for  that  purpose  if  tbe  fracture  is  not  serious.  A 
mechanical  repair  is  alwaj^s  possible,  i.e.,  a  metal  patch 
can  be  applied  to  cover  the  crack  and  held  in  place  against 
a  gasket  interposed  between  tbe  plate  and  the  cylinder 
jacket  by  small  machine  screws  tapped  into  the  iron. 

If  the  crack  is  of  some  length  it  may  be  repaired  by 
tbe  following  method:     On  the  line  of  tbe  fracture,  drill 


Repairing  Cracked  Water  Jackel  225 

and  tap  for  a  %"  threaded  copper  rod.  This  rod  is 
screwed  in  firmly  to  a  depth  about  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  metal  of  the  water  jacket.  Cut  off  the  copper  rod 
with  a  hacksaw,  allowing  it  to  project  about  y32'';  then 
drill  succeeding  holes,  each  hole  being  drilled  partly  into 
the  previously  inserted  cQpper  plug,  so  that  when  all  of 
the  plugs  are  placed  in  the  cylinder  casting,  they  form 
a  continuous  band  of  copper  along  the  line  of  the  fracture. 
The  copper  plugs  should  be  peened  down  and  trimmed  off 
flush.  The  only  possible  chance  for  leakage,  after  having 
repaired  the  crack  in  this  manner,  is  for  the  water  to 
follow  the  joint  between  the  metal  of  the  jacket  and  the 
copper  plugs,  but  as  the  copper  rods  are  threaded  into 
the  casting,  it  is  not  likely  to  occur.  Should  leakage  take 
place,  a  little  extra  peening  will  suffice  to  prevent  it. 

Still  another  method  involves  fusing  copper  filings  or 
granulated  brass  spelter  into  the  crack.  This  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  not  requiring  the  removal  of  the  part  to  be  re- 
paired. Drill  and  tap  a  small  hole  at  each  end  of  the  crack 
to  prevent  further  extension  of  the  weakness,  and  screw  in 
an  iron  stud.  Next  clean  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  frac- 
ture very  thoroughly,  using  a  scraper  and  gasoline.  File  up 
some  soft  copper  or  brass  spelter,  mix  with  borax  and  fill 
the  crack,  heaping  the  filings  over  it.  Then  take  a  power- 
ful blow  lamp  or  a  torch  and  direct  the  flame  on  the  copper. 
By  this  method  a  fair  amount  of  metal  can  be  worked  into 
the  opening.  After  cooling,  the  studs  are  cut  off  flush  and 
the  copper  filed  smooth.  It  is  said  that  the  repair  will  en- 
dure indefinitely. 

In  many  cases  where  the  crack  is  not  serious  it  may  be 
closed  by  making  a  rust  joint.  The  first  step  is  to  drill  a 
very  small  hole  at  each  end  of  the  crack  to  i)revent  it  from 
spreading  and  to  drive  in  or  screw  in  a  metal  plug  in  each 


226  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

hole.  The  crack  is  then  filled  up  with  a  paste  made  of  QQ% 
iron  filings  or  iron  dust  and  33%  sal  ammoniac  in  the  pul- 
verized form,  with  just  enough  water  to  make  the  mixture 
of  proper  consistencj^  to  be  pressed  into  the  crack  easily. 
The  action  of  the  sal  ammoniac  is  to  rapidly  oxidize  the 
fine  iron  filings,  producing  rust  which  joins  the  various 
iron  particles  together  and  effectively  seals  the  opening 
when  it  has  properly  hardened.  As  a  number  of  prepared 
cements  for  use  with  cast  iron  may  be  purchased  at  low 
cost  it  is  often  cheaper  to  buy  the  cement  than  to  attempt 
to  make  it. 

Another  method  sometimes  employed  is  to  clean  out 
the  interior  of  the  water  jacket  thoroughly  and  put  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  or  bluestone,  allowing  this 
to  leak  through  the  crack,  if  it  will.  Care  is  taken  to  re- 
move any  traces  of  grease  that  may  remain  in  the  crack ; 
this  may  be  washed  out  by  a  boiling  hot  solution  of  potash 
or  caustic  soda.  As  the  copper  sulphate  solution  leaks  out, 
it  deposits  a  thin  copper  film,  and  if  the  crack  is  such  that 
it  permits  only  a  slow  leak,  the  defective  point  will  be 
sealed  overnight  with  a  deposit  of  pure  copper. 

Reseating  and  Truing  Valves. — Much  has  been  said  rela- 
tive to  valve  grinding  and  despite  the  mass  of  information 
given  in  the  trade  prints  it  is  rather  amusing  to  watch 
the  average  repair  man  or  the  motorist  who  prides  him- 
self on  maintaining  his  own  car  performing  this  essential 
operation.  The  common  mistakes  are  attempting  to  seat 
a  badly  grooved  or  pitted  valve  on  an  equally  bad  seat, 
which  is  an  almost  hopeless  job,  and  of  using  coarse  emery 
and  bearing  down  with  all  one's  weight  on  the  grinding 
tool  with  the  hope  of  quickly  wearing  away  the  rough 
surfaces.  The  use  of  improper  abrasive  material  is  a 
fertile  cause  of  failure  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  seating. 


Reseating  and  Tru'niy  Valves 


227 


Valve  grinding  is  not  a  difficnlt  operation  if  certain  pre- 
cautions are  taken  before  undertaking  the  work.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  to  ascertain  if  the  valve  head  or  seat 
is  badly  scored  or  pitted.  If  such  is  found  to  be  the  case 
no  ordinary  amount  of  grinding  will  serve  to  restore  the 
surfaces.  In  this  event  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  re- 
move the  valve  from  its  seating  and  to  smooth  down  both 


'Value  Spring 


Value  Spring  Seat 
-Value  Stem 

Value  Seat  Pin 


Value  Lifting  Tool 


Fig.    75. — Method   of    Compressing  Valve    Spring  in   Order   to   Remove 
Valve  Seat  Pin  by  Using  Ford  Valve  Spring  Lifter. 

the  valve  head  and  the  seat  in  the  cylinder  before  attempt 
is  made  to  fit  them  together  by  grinding.  Another  im- 
portant precaution  is  to  make  sure  that  the  valve  stem  is 
straight,  and  that  the  head  is  not  warped  out  of  shape. 

A  number  of  simple  tools  are  available  at  the  present 
time  for  tiTiing  valve  seats,  one  of  these  being  outlined  in 
use  at  Fig.  77.  It  is  a  simple  reamer  having  cutters  con- 
forming to  the  valve  seat  angle  and  a  T-handle  by  which 
it  may  be  turned. 

Method   of   Valve  •  Grinding. — The   process    of   seating 


228 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


valves  by  grinding  is  not  a  difficult  one,  requiring  patience 
more  than  mechanical  skill.  The  first  step  is  to  remove 
the  valves,  which  may  be  accomplished  as  shown  at  Fig. 
75,  using  the  regular  Ford  tool,  or  at  Fig.  76,  using  another 
type  of  valve  spring  compressor.    Before  the  valves  can 


Fig.  76. — Special  Tool  for  Raising  Valve  Springs  When  Inlet  and 
Exhaust  Manifolds  are  Taken  Off  of  the  Cylinder  Block. 


be  removed,  the  spring  that  keeps  them  seated  must  be 
raised  enough  to  permit  the  removal  of  the  valve  seat 
pin  shown  at  Fig.  75.  After  the  pin  is  pulled  out  of  the 
valve  stem,  the  valve  may  be  pushed  up  from  its  seat  and 
removed  for  examination.  The  writer  believes  that  it 
is  better  to  remove  the  manifolds  before  grinding  the 
valves,  so  the  tool  shown  at  Fig.  76  is  best  to  raise  the 


Valve  Grinding  Process 


229 


valve  spring  as  it  does  not  depend  upon  a  manifold  re- 
taining stirrup  as  an  anchorage.  Another  advantage  is 
that  it  keeps  the  valve  head  against  the  seat  while  the 
spring  is  compressed. 

A  special  bit  stock  arrangement  made  especially  for 


Fig.  77. — Showing  Use  of  Valve  Seat  Reamer  for  Smoothing  Scored  or 

Pitted  Valve  Seats. 


grinding  in  Ford  valves  is  shown  in  use  at  Fig.  78.  The 
lower  portion  of  the  valve  grinding  tool  has  two  pins  to 
engage  the  corresponding  holes  in  the  valve  head.  An 
abrasive  paste  is  placed  between  the  valve  head  and  seat 
and  the  valve  is  turned  or  oscillated  so  the  cutting  mate- 
rial removes  the  roughness  from  the  valve  seat  and  valve, 
fitting  one  to  the  other.    It  is  advisable  to  lift  the  valve 


230 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


from  its  seat  frequently  as  the  grinding  operation  con- 
tinues, tins  is  to  provide  an  even  distribution  of  the  abra- 
sive material  placed  between  the  valve  head  and  its  seat. 
Only  sufficient  pressure  is  given  to  the  bit  stock  to  over- 
come the  uplift  of  the  spring  beneath  the  valve  and  to 


Fig.  78. — Showing  Use  of  Special  Tool  for  Grinding  Ford  Valves. 

insure  that  the  valve  will  be  held  against  the  seat.  Where 
the  spring  is  not  used  it  is  possible  to  lift  the  valve  from 
time  to  time  with  the  hand,  which  is  placed  under  the 
valve  stem  to  raise  it  as  the  grinding  is  carried  on.  It 
is  not  always  possible  to  lift  the  valve  in  this  manner  when 
the  cylinders  are  in  place  on  the  engine  base  owing  to 
the  space  between  the  valve  lift  plunger  an^  the  end  of 


Valve  Grinding  Process  231 

tlie  valve  stem.  In  this  event,  the  use  of  the  spring  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78,  where  it  is  discernible  through  the  gas 
port  ^^ill  be  desirable  to  raise  the  valve  head  when  the 
grinding  tool  is  lifted  and  the  pressure  released. 

The  abrasive  generally  used  is  a  paste  made  of  medium 
or  fine  emery  and  lard  oil  or  kerosene.  This  is  used  until 
the  surfaces  are  comparatively  smooth,  after  which  the 
final  polish  or  finish  is  given  with  a  paste  of  flour  emery, 
grindstone  dust,  crocus,  or  ground  glass  and  oil.  An 
erroneous  impression  prevails  in  some  quarters  that  the 
valve  head  surface  and  the  seating  must  have  a  mirror- 
like polish.  While  this  is  not  necessary  it  is  essential 
that  the  seat  in  the  cylinder  and  the  bevel  surface  of  the 
head  be  smooth  and  free  from  pits  or  scratches  at  the 
completion  of  the  operation.  All  traces  of  the  emery 
and  oil  should  be  thoroughly  washed  out  of  the  valve 
chamber  with  gasoline  before  the  valve  mechanism  is 
assembled,  and  in  fact  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  old 
grinding  compound  at  regular  intervals,  wash  the  seat 
thoroughly  and  supply  fresh  materials  from  time  to  time 
as  the  process  is  in  progress.  The  truth  of  seatings  may 
be  tested  by  taking  some  Prussian  blue  pigment  and 
spreading  a  thin  film  of  it  over  the  valve  seat.  The  valve 
is  dropped  in  place  and  is  given  about  one-eighth  turn 
with  a  little  pressure  on  the  tool.  If  the  seating  is  good 
both  valve  head  and  seat  will  be  covered  uniformly  with 
color.  If  high  spots  exist,  the  heavy  deposit  of  color  will 
show  these  while  the  low  spots  will  be  made  evident  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  pigment.  The  grinding  process  should 
be  continued  until  the  test  shows  an  even  bearing  of  the 
valve  head  at  all  jioints  of  the  cylinder  seating. 

Inspection  of  Piston  Rings. — The  piston  rings  should  be 
taken  out  of  the  piston  grooves  and  all  carbon  deposits 


232  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

removed  from  the  inside  of  the  ring  and  the  bottom  of 
the  groove.  It  is  important  to  take  this  deposit  out  be- 
cause it  prevents  the  rings  from  performing  their  proper 
functions  by  reducing  the  ring  elasticity,  and  if  the  deposit 
is  allowed  to  accumulate  it  may  eventually  result  in  stick- 
ing and  binding  of  the  ring,  this  producing  excessive  fric- 
tion or  loss  of  compression.  When  the  rings  are  removed 
they  should  be  tested  to  see  if  they  retain  their  elasticity. 
If  gas  has  been  blowing  by  the  rings  or  if  these  members 
have  not  been  fitting  the  cylinder  properly  the  points 
where  the  gas  passed  will  be  evidenced  by  a  burnt,  brown 
or  roughened  portion  of  the  polished  surface  of  the  pistons 
and  rings.  The  point  where  this  discoloration  will  be  no- 
ticed more  often  is  at  the  thin  end  of  an  eccentric  ring, 
the  discoloration  being  present  for  about  i/o"  or  %"  each 
side  of  the  slot.  It  may  be  possible  that  the  rings  were 
not  true  when  first  put  in.  This  made  it  possible  for  the 
gas  to  leak  by  in  a  small  amount  initially  which  increased 
due  to  continued  pressure  until  quite  a  large  area  for  gas 
escape  had  been  created. 

Piston  Ring  Manipulation. — ^Removing  piston  rings  is  a 
difficult  operation  if  the  proper  means  are  not  taken  but 
is  a  simple  one  when  the  trick  is  known.  The  tools  re- 
quired are  very  simple,  being  three  strips  of  thin  steel 
about  one-quarter  inch  wide  and  four  or  five  inches  long 
and  a  pair  of  spreading  tongs  made  up  of  one-quarter  inch 
diameter  keystock  tied  in  the  center  with  a  copper  wire  to 
form  a  hinge.  The  construction  is  such  that  when  the  hand 
is  closed  and  the  handles  brought  together  the  other  end 
of  the  expander  spreads  out,  an  action  just  opposite  to 
that  of  the  conventional  pliers.  The  method  of  using  the 
tongs  and  the  metal  strips  is  clearly  indicated  at  Fig.  79. 
At  A  the  ring  expander  is  shown  spreading  the  ends  of  the 


Piston  Ring  Manipulation 


233 


rings  sufficiently  to  insert  the  pieces  of  sheet  metal  be- 
tween one  of  the  rings  and  the  piston.  Grasp  the  ring  as 
shown  at  B,  pressing  it  off  with  the  thumbs  on  the  top  of 
the  piston  and  the  ring  will  slide  off  easily,  the  thin  metal 
strips  acting  as  guide  members  to  prevent  the  ring  from 
catching  in  the  other  piston  grooves.    Usually  no  difficulty 


Ring  Ezpuider 


Fig.  79. — Showing  Method  of  Removing  Piston  Rings  Without 

Damaging  Them. 


is  experienced  in  removing  the  top  or  bottom  rings  as 
these  members  may  be  easily  expanded  and  worked  off 
directly  without  the  use  of  a  metal  strip.  When  removing 
the  intermediate  rings,  however,  the  metal  strips  will  be 
found  very  useful.  These  are  usually  made  by  the  repair- 
man by  grinding  the  teeth  from  old  hacksaw  blades  and 
rounding  the  edges  and  comers  in  order  to  reduce  the 
liability  of  cutting  the  fingers.     By  the  use  of  the  three 


234  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

metal  strips  a  ring  is  removed  without  breaking  or  dis- 
torting it  and  practically  no  time  is  consumed  in  the 
operation. 

Fitting  Piston  Rings. — Before  installing  new  rings,  they 
should  be  carefully  fitted  to  the  grooves  to  which  they  are 
applied.  The  tools  required  are  a  large  piece  of  fine  emery 
cloth,  a  thin  flat  file,  a  small  vise  with  copper  or  leaden 
jaw  clips  and  a  hard  smooth  surface  such  as  that  afforded 
by  the  top  of  a  surface  plate  or  a  well  planed  piece  of 
hard  wood.  After  making  sure  that  all  deposits  of  burnt 
oil  and  carbon  have  been  removed  from  the  piston  grooves, 
three  rings  are  selected,  one  for  each  groove.  The  ring 
is  turned  all  around  its  circumference  into  the  groove  it 
is  to  fit  which  can  be  done  without  springing  it  over  the 
piston  as  the  outside  edge  of  the  ring  may  be  used  to  test 
the  width  of  the  groove  just  as  well  as  the  inside  edge. 
The  ring  should  be  a  fair  fit  and  while  free  to  move  cir- 
cumf  erentially  there  should  be  no  appreciable  up  and  down 
motion.  If  rings  are  a  tight  fit,  each  should  be  laid  edge 
down  upon  the  piece  t)f  emeiy  cloth  which  is  placed  on  the 
surface  plate  and  carefully  rubbed  down  until  it  fits  the 
groove  it  is  to  occupy.  It  is  advisable  to  fit  each  piston 
ring  individually  and  to  mark  them  in  some  way  to  insure 
that  they  will  be  j^laced  in  the  groove  to  which  they  are 
fitted. 

The  repairman  next  turns  his  attention  to  fitting  the 
ring  in  the  cylinder  itself.  The  ring  should  be  pushed  into 
the  cylinder  at  least  two  inches  up  from  the  bottom  and  en- 
deavor should  be  made  to  have  the  lower  edge  of  the  ring 
parallel  with  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  If  the  ring  is 
not  of  correct  diameter  but  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
cylinder  bore,  this  condition  will  be  evident  by  the  angular 
slots  of  the  rings  being  out  of  line  or  by  difficulty  in  in- 


Fitting  Piston  Rings  235 

sorting  the  ring  if  it  is  a  lap  joint  form.  If  such  is  the 
case  the  ring  is  removed  from  the  cylinder  and  placed 
in  the  vise  between  soft  metal  jaw  clips.  Sufficient  metal 
is  removed  with  a  fine  file  from  the  edges  of  the  ring  at 
the  slot  until  the  edges  come  into  line  and  a  slight  space 
exists  between  them  when  the  ring  is  placed  in  the  cylin- 
der. It  is  important  that  this  space  be  left  between  the 
ends  for  if  this  is  not  done  when  the  ring  becomes  heated 
the  expansion  of  metal  may  cause  the  ends  to  abut  and 
the  ring  to  jam  in  the  cylinder. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  more  than  ordinary  caution  in 
replacing  the  rings  on  the  piston  because  they  are  usually 
made  of  cast  iron,  a  metal  that  is  very  fragile  and  liable 
to  break  because  of  its  brittleness.  Special  care  should 
be  taken  in  replacing  new  rings  as  these  members  are 
more  apt  to  break  than  old  ones.  This  is  probably  ac- 
counted for  by  heating  action  on  used  rings  which  tends 
to  anneal  the  metal  as  well  as  making  it  less  springy.  The 
bottom  ring  should  be  placed  in  position  first,  which  is 
easily  accomplished  by  springing  the  ring  open  enough 
to  pass  on  the  piston  and  then  sliding  it  into  place  in  the 
lower  groove  which  on  some  types  of  engines  is  below" 
the  wrist  pin  whereas  in  others  all  grooves  are  above  that 
member.  The  other  members  are  put  in  by  a  reversal  of 
the  process  outlined  at  Fig.  79.  It  is  not  always  neces- 
sary to  use  the  guiding  strips  of  metal  when  replacing 
rings  as  it  is  often  possible,  by  putting  the  rings  on  the 
piston  a  little  askew  and  manuvering  them  to  pass  the 
grooves  without  springing  the  ring  into  them.  The  top 
ring  should  be  the  last  one  placed  in  position. 

Before  replacing  pistons  in  the  cylinder  one  should 
make  sure  that  the  slots  in  the  piston  rings  are  spaced 
equidistant  on  the  piston.     The  slots  should  never  be  in 


236  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

line,  especially  with  diagonal  cut  rings.  The  cylinder 
should  be  well  oiled  before  attempt  is  made  to  install  the 
pistons.  The  engine  should  be  run  with  more  than  the 
ordinarv  amount  of  lubricant  for  several  davs  after  new 
piston  rings  have  been  inserted.  On  first  starting  the 
engine,  one  may  be  disappointed  in  that  the  compression 
is  even  less  than  that  obtained  with  the  old  rings.  This 
condition  will  soon  become  remedied  as  the  rings  become 
polished  and  adapt  themselves  to  the  contour  of  the  cylin- 
der. It  mil  take  fully  100  miles  of  road  work  to  bring 
the  rings  to  a  sufficiently  good  fit  so  that  a  marked  im- 
j)rovement  in  compression  will  be  noticed. 

Wrist  Pin  Wear. — While  wrist  pins  are  usually  made 
of  very  tough  steel,  case-hardened,  with  the  object  of  wear- 
ing out  an  easily  renewable  bronze  bushing  in  the  piston 
bosses  rather  than  the  wrist  pin,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  these  members  will  be  worn  so  that  even  the  replace- 
ment of  new  bushings  in  the  piston  will  not  reduce  the 
lost  motion  and  attendant  noise  due  to  a  loose  wrist  pin. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  fit  new  wrist  pins  to  the  piston. 
AATiere  the  connecting  rod  is  clamped  to  the  wrist  pin  and 
that  member  oscillates  in  the  piston  bosses  the  wear  will 
usually  be  indicated  on  bronze  bushings  which  are  pressed 
into  the  piston  bosses.  These  are  easily  renewed  and 
after  running  a  reamer  of  the  proper  size  through  them  no 
difficulty  should  be  experienced  in  replacing  either  the 
old  or  a  ncAv  wrist  pin  depending  upon  the  condition  of 
that  member. 

Inspection  and  Refitting  of  Engine  Bearings. — While  the 
engine  is  dismantled  one  has  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
examine  the  various  bearing  points  in  the  engine  crank 
case  to  ascertain  if  any  looseness  exists  due  to  deprecia- 
tion of  the  bearing  surfaces.    As  will  be  evident  from  Fig. 


Refitting  Engine  Bearings 


237 


73  the  three  main  crank  shaft  bearings  and  the  lower  ends 
of  the  connecting  rods  may  be  easily  examined  for  de- 
terioration when  the  crank  case  lower  half  is  removed. 
"With  the  rods  in  place  as  showTi  it  is  not  difficult  to  feel 
the  amount  of  lost  motion  by  grasping  the  connecting  rod 
firmly  with  the  hand  and  attempting  to  move  it  up  and 


Fig.    80. — Showing  Method  of   Testing  Main  Bearings   When  Refitting 
by  Rocking  the  Crank  Shaft  by  Hand. 


down.  The  appearance  of  the  engine  base  after  the  con- 
necting rods  and  fl^^wheel  have  been  removed  from  the 
crank  shaft  is  shown  at  Fig.  80,  while  the  appearance  of 
the  inverted  upper  portion  of  the  crank  case  after  the 
crank  shaft  is  removed  is  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  81.  In 
this  view  the  cylinder  block  is  supported  head  end  doAvn 
on  the  bench. 

After  the  connecting  rods  have  been  removed  and  the 


238  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

flywheel  taken  off  the  crank  shaft  to  permit  of  ready 
handling,  any  looseness  in  the  main  bearing  may  be  de- 
tected by  lifting  up  either  the  front  or  rear  end  of  the 
crank  shaft  with  a  pinch  bar  and  observing  if  there  is 
any  lost  motion  between  the  shaft  journal  and  the  main 
bearing  caps.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take  an  engine 
entirely  apart  to  examine  the  main  bearings,  as  in  the 
Ford  engine  these  may  be  readily  reached  by  removing 
a  large  inspection  plate  from  the  bottom  of  the  engine 
crank  case.  This  may  be  done  without  taking  the  engine 
out  of  the  frame,  though  if  bearings  are  worn  to  any  ex- 
tent much  time  will  be  saved  by  having  the  engine  base 
on  a  bench  where  it  can  be  reached  easily,  and  worked  on 
with  some  degree  of  comfort. 

"Knocking"  Indicates  Loose  Bearings. — If  an  engine 
knocks  when  a  vehicle  is  traveling  over  level  roads  re- 
gardless of  speed  or  spark  lever  position  and  the  trouble 
is  not  due  to  carbon  deposits  in  the  combustion  chamber 
one  may  reasonably  surmise  that  the  main  bearings  have 
become  loose  or  that  lost  motion  may  exist  at  the  con- 
necting rod  big  ends  and  possibly  at  the  wrist  pins.  The 
main  journals  of  the  Ford  engine  are  proportioned  with 
ample  surface  and  will  not  wear  unduly  unless  lubrication 
has  been  neglected.  The  connecting  rod  bearings  wear 
quicker  than  the  main  bearings  owing  to  being  subjected 
to  a  greater  unit  stress  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  take 
these  up  several  times  in  a  season  if  the  car  is  driven  to 
any  extent.  Main  bearings  should  run  for  ten  thousand 
miles  without  attention  in  a  properly  built  engine  that 
has  always  been  well  oiled.  Most  connecting  rod  bear- 
ings will  loosen  up  enough  to  be  taken  up  in  five  thousand 
miles. 

Adjusting  Main  Bearings. — When  the  bearings  are  not 


Adjusting  Main  Bearings  239 

worn  enough  to  require  refitting  the  lost  motion  can  often 
be  eliminated  by  removing  one  or  more  of  the  thin  shims 
or  liners  ordinarily  used  to  separate  the  bearing  caps 
from  the  seat.  Care  must  be  taken  that  an  even  number 
of  shims  of  the  same  thickness  are  removed  from  each 
side  of  the  journal.  If  there  is  considerable  lost  motion 
after  one  or  two  shims  have  been  removed  it  will  be  ad- 
visable to  file  some  metal  from  the  bearing  cap  and  to 
scrape  the  bearing  to  a  fit  before  the  bearing  cap  is  finally 
tightened  up. 

The  following  instructions  for  refitting  main  bearings 
are  given  by  the  Ford  Motor  Company  in  their  book  of 
instructions : 

(1)  After  the  engine  has  been  taken  out  of  the  car, 
remove  crank  case,  transmission  cover,  cylinder  head, 
pistons,  connecting  rods,  transmission  and  magiieto  coils. 
Take  off  the  three  babbitted  caps  and  clean  the  bearing 
surfaces  with  gasoline.  Applj^  blue  or  red  lead  to  the 
crank  shaft  bearing  surfaces,  which  will  enable  you,  in 
fitting  the  caps,  to  determine  whether  a  perfect  bearing 
surface  is  obtained. 

(2)  Place  the  rear  cap  in  position  and  tighten  it  up  as 
much  as  jDOSsible  without  stripping  the  bolt  threads. 
AVhen  the  bearing  has  been  properly  fitted,  the  crank  shaft 
will  peiTuit  moving  with  one  hand.  If  the  crank  shaft 
cannot  be  turned  with  one  hand,  the  contact  between  the 
bearing  surfaces  is  evidently  too  close,  and  the  cap  re- 
quires shimming  up,  one  or  two  brass  liners  usually  being 
sufficient.  In  case  the  crank  shaft  moves  too  easily  with 
one  hand,  the  shims  should  be  removed  and  the  steel  sur- 
face of  the  cap  filed  off,  permitting  it  to  set  closer, 

(3)  After  removing  the  cap,  observe  whether  the  blue 
or  red  "spottings"  indicate  a  full  bearing  the  length  of 


240  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

the  cap.  If  ' '  spottings ' '  do  not  sliow  a  true  bearing,  the 
babbitt  should  be  scraped  and  the  cap  refitted  until  the 
proper  results  are  obtained. 

(4)  Lay  the  rear  cap  aside  and  proceed  to  adjust  the 
center  bearing  in  the  same  manner.  Repeat  the  opera- 
tion with  the  front  bearing,  with  the  other  two  bearings 
laid  aside. 

(5)  When  the  proper  adjustment  of  each  bearing  has 
been  obtained,  clean  the  babbitt  surface  carefully  and 
place  a  little  lubricating  oil  on  the  bearings,  also  on  the 
crank  shaft ;  then  draw  the  caps  up  as  closely  as  possible 
— the  necessary  shims,  of  course,  being  in  place.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  getting  the  cap  bolts  too  tight,  as  the  shim  under 
the  cap  and  the  oil  between  the  bearing  surfaces  will  pre- 
vent the  metal  being  drawn  into  too  close  contact.  If  oil 
is  not  put  on  the  bearing  surfaces,  the  babbitt  is  apt  to  cut 
out  when  the  motor  is  started  up  before  the  oil  in  the 
crank  case  can  get  into  the  bearing. 

In  replacing  the  crank  case  and  transmission  cover  on 
the  motor,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  new  set  of  felt  gaskets  to 
prevent  oil  leaks. 

Scraping-  Brasses  To  Fit. — To  insure  that  the  bearing 
brasses  will  be  a  good  fit  on  the  crank  pins  or  crank  shaft 
journals  they  must  be  scraped  to  fit.  The  process  of  scrap- 
ing, while  a  tedious  one,  is  not  difficult,  requiring  only 
patience  and  some  degree  of  care  to  do  a  good  job.  The 
crank  i^in  surface  is  smeared  with  Prussian  blue  pigment 
which  is  spread  evenly  over  the  entire  surface.  The  bear- 
ings are  then  clamped  together  in  the  usual  manner  with 
proper  bolts  and  the  crank  shaft  revolved  several  times 
to  indicate  the  high  spots  on  the  bearing  cap.  At  the  start 
of  the  process  of  scraping  in,  the  bearing  may  seat  at  only 
a  few  points.    Continued  scraping  will  bring  the  bearing 


Scraping  Bearings  to  Fit 


241 


surface  practically  across  tlie  brass,  which  is  a  con- 
siderable improvement,  while  the  process  may  be  consid- 
ered complete  when  the  brass  indicates  a  bearing  all  over. 
The  high  spots  are  indicated  by  blue,  as  where  the  shaft 
does  not  bear  on  the  bearing  there  is  no  color.  The  high 
spots  are  removed  by  means  of  scraping  tools  of  the  form 


mm'- ' 

^^J^K!&k         CVLINDER                I 

fl^^^B  J^jm  ' 

. 

^^^ai    BLOCH  CASTING       1 

^^^^^^^K'iMB^Bfc^  ,c . 

CRANKSHAFT      fl 

^iipr/               A 

^^^^^^^^^p>, ' 

■ 

\.      1 

w^ft^   /              iji 

^I^^HI^^^K-' 

r. 

1 

■I            /CENTER  ^A/N         J^ 

n          /        BEARING            jg^ 

^^^^B^^^pP^' 

,.  > 

^ 

i 

Jtf/\ 

^BV                                                             jyii^^^W 

^^^^^^^^^^ 

.^fl^fll 

8^     /             ■    SCRAPER       ff^^ 

^^^^^^r 

■ 

^^9 

IJF--^^— 1           1         '""  ■"  "^1 

^^^m     .     . 

\ 

^^g| 

^^^^^^^■^^-i-.  ill       '  ^ 

^m  L  \  \  jL 

i'  ■ 

UlS^^^^^^^^B^^m /]^^ 

BH|^H^^^g|§k|^  ..Jfli^ti^^^^^^K^ 

^B^\\-,  ^^^^^U^^ 

^^^^^^^^V^^B^^^^^^lj^^' ;  ^^^ 

^^H^^^^^l^^^^l^^^^ 

- 

^^|^lHH^H^fito^>H 

^^^^^^^^^   .^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hhm^^^I 

^^I^^^^T'^ifl^^^^^^^^^l^^^^l 

*- 

i- 

x^^i#^^^S^^I 

HHBHlMjgij^^^*   iinni 

&oH^^^H 

■- 

^^^^^^Hl 

JB/^Jp^y         ^^^HBl 

P    K       rX .  ^  yw^BIBBlK- 

A 

^K^  /rtfC^            ^^^^^^ 

t*-  ^B       IB  ^  ^^^^^HI^^BfeBJJB 

:    i 

w       JKt 

S^^^^Bt 

7MHHB^<^^mH^^^^| 

■ 

■H^' 

''^^^<        Mk*'        ^^^^ 

JhI^IB^I^^^^H 

b^- 

HHfe.'. 

^jjHln^ . "  ■  i2*^^-  -      JSmBmL 

rig.  81. — Showing  Method  of  Scraping  in  Main  Bearings  to  Fit 

Crank  Shaft  Journals. 


shown  at  Figs.  81  and  85,  which  may  be  easily  made  from 
wornout  files.  These  are  forged  to  shape  and  ground 
hollow  and  are  kept  properly  sharpened  by  frequent  rub- 
bing on  an  ordinary  oil  stone.  To  scrape  properly  the  edge 
of  the  scraper  must  be  very  keen.  The  straight  or  curv^ed 
half  round  type  works  well  on  soft  bearing  metals  such  as 
babbitt  or  white  brass,  but  on  yellow  brass  or  bronze  it 
cuts  very  slowlj^  and  as  soon  as  the  edge  becomes  dull 


242 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


considerable  pressure  is  needed  to  remove  any  metal,  this 
calling  for  frequent  sharpening. 

When  correcting  errors  on  flat  or  curved  surfaces  by 
handscraping,  it  is  desirable,  of  course,  to  obtain  an  evenly 


Fig.    82. — Method   of   Fastening  Magnets  in   Place   on  Flywheel.      Note 
Planetary  Triple  Gear  Assemblies  of  Transmission  in  Foreground. 

spotted  bearing  with  as  little  scraping  as  possible.  When 
the  part  to  be  scraped  is  first  applied  to  the  surface-plate, 
or  to  a  journal  in  the  case  of  a  bearing,  three  or  four 
"high"  spots  may  be  indicated  by  the  marking  material. 
The  time  recjuired  to  reduce  these  high  spots  and  obtain  a 
bearing  that  is  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  de- 


Rem et ailing  Connecting  Rods  243 

pends  largely  upon  the  way  the  scraping  is  started.  If 
the  first  bearing  marks  indicate  a  decided  rise  in  the  sur- 
face, much  time  can  be  saved  by  scraping  larger  areas  than 
covered  by  the  bearing  marks,  this  is  especially  true  of 
engine  bearings.  An  experienced  workman  will  not  only 
remove  the  heavy  marks,  but  also  reduce  a  larger  area; 
then,  when  the  bearing  is  tested  again,  the  marks  will 
generally  be  distributed  somewhat.  If  the  heavy  marks 
which  usually  appear  at  first  are  simply  removed  by  light 
scraping,  these  ''point  bearings"  are  gradually  enlarged, 
but  a  much  longer  time  will  be  required  to  distribute 
them. 

The  number  of  times  the  bearing  must  be  applied  to 
the  journal  for  testing  is  important.  The  time  required 
to  distribute  the  bearing  marks  evenly  depends  largely, 
upon  one's  judgment  in  ''reading"  these  marks.  In  the 
early  stages  of  the  scraping  operation  the  marks  should 
be  used  partly  as  a  guide  for  showing  the  high  areas,  and 
instead  of  merely  scraping  the  marked  spot  the  surface 
surrounding  it  should  also  be  reduced,  unless  it  is  evident 
that  the  unevenness  is  local.  The  idea  should  be  to  obtain 
first  a  few  laiige  but  generally  distributed  marks ;  then  an 
evenly  and  finely  spotted  surface  can  be  produced  quite 
easily. 

Remetalling  and  Fitting  Connecting  Rods. — Fitting  and 
adjusting  rod  bearings,  especially  those  at  the  crank  pin 
end  is  one  of  the  operations  that  must  be  performed  sev- 
eral times  a  season  if  a  car  is  used  to  any  extent.  There 
are  two  forms  of  connecting  rods  in  general  use,  known 
respectively  as  the  marine  type,  and  the  hinged  form. 
The  hinge  type  is  the  simplest,  but  one  clamp  bolt  being- 
used  to  keep  the  parts  together  as  the  cap  is  hinged  to  the 
rod  end  on  one  side,  this  permitting  the  lower  portion  to 


244  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

swing  down  and  the  crank  pin  to  pass  out  from  between 
the  halves  when  the  retaining  bolt  is  removed.  In  the  mar- 
ine type,  which  is  that  used  on  the  Ford  Model  T,  one  bolt 
is  employed  at  each  side  and  the  cap  must  be  removed  en- 
tirely before  the  bearing  can  be  taken  off  of  the  crank  pin. 
The  tightness  of  the  brasses  around  the  crank  pin  can 
never  be  determined  solely  by  the  adjustment  of  the 
bolts,  as  while  it  is  important  that  these  should  be  drawn 
up  as  tightly  as  possible  the  bearing  should  fit  the  shaft 
without  undue  binding  even  if  the  brasses  must  be  scraped 
to  insure  a  proper  fit.  As  is  true  of  the  main  bearings 
the  marine  form  of  connecting  rod  may  have  a  number 
of  liners  or  shims  interposed  between  the  top  and  cap 
portions  of  the  rod  end,  and  these  may  be  reduced  in 
number  when  necessary  to  bring  the  brasses  closer  to- 
gether. 

Before  assembling  on  the  shaft,  it  is  necessary  to  fit 
the  bearings  by  scraping,  the  same  instructions  given  for 
restoring  the  contour  of  the  main  bearings  applying  just 
as  well  in  this  case.  It  is  apparent  that  if  the  crank  pins 
are  not  round  no  amount  of  scraping  will  insure  a  true 
bearing.  A  point  to  observe  is  to  make  sure  that  the  heads 
of  the  cap  retaining  bolts  are  imbedded  solidly  in  their 
proper  position  and  that  they  are  not  raised  by  any  burrs 
or  particles  of  dirt  under  the  head  which  will  flatten  out 
after  the  engine  has  been  run  for  a  time  and  allow  the  bolts 
to  slack  off.  Similarly,  care  should  be  taken  that  there 
is  no  foreign  matter  under  the  brasses  and  the  box  in 
which  they  seat.  To  guard  against  this,  the  bolts  should 
be  struck  with  a  hammer  several  times  after  they  are 
tightened  up  and  the  connecting  rod  can  be  hit  sharply 
several  times  under  the  cap  with  a  wooden  mallet  or 
lead  hammer. 


lie  metalling  Connecting  Rods  245 

Care  sliould  be  taken  in  screwing  on  the  retaining  nuts 
to  insure  that  they  will  remain  in  place  and  not  slack  off. 
Spring  washers  should  never  be  used  on  either  connecting 
rod  ends  or  main  bearing  bolts  because  these  sometimes 
snap  in  two  pieces  and  leave  the  nut  slack.  The  best 
method  of  locking  is  to  use  well-fitting  split  pins  and 
castellated  nuts  as  supplied. 

The  following  advice  from  the  Ford  Manual  is  perti- 
nent : 

' '  Remember,  there  is  a  possibility  of  getting  the  bear- 
ings too  tight,  and  under  such  conditions  the  babbitt  is  apt 
to  cut  out  quickly,  unless  precaution  is  taken  to  run  the 
motor  slowly  at  the  start.  It  is  a  good  plan  after  ad- 
justing the  bearings  to  jack  up  the  rear  wheels  and  let  the 
motor  run  slowly  for  about  two  hours  (keeping  it  well 
supplied  with  water  and  oil)  before  taking  it  out  on  the 
road.  Whenever  possible  these  bearings  should  be  fitted 
by  an  expert  Ford  mechanic." 

If  the  babbitt  lining  is  worn  sufficiently  so  it  must  be 
replaced  or  if  it  has  been  burned  out  by  running  the  en- 
gine without  oil,  the  connecting  rod  and  cap  must  be 
rebabbitted.  The  Ford  makers  advise  returning  the  con- 
necting rods  to  the  factory  or  to  the  nearest  service  sta- 
tion.   They  advise  as  follows: 

"Worn  connecting  rods  may  be  returned,  prepaid,  to 
the  nearest  agent  or  branch  house  for  exchange  at  a  price 
of  75  cents  each  to  cover  the  cost  of  rebabbitting.  It  is  not 
advisable  for  any  owner  or  repair  shop  to  attempt  the  re- 
babbitting  of  connecting  rods  or  main  bearings,  for  with- 
out a  special  jig  in  which  to  form  the  bearings,  satisfactory 
results  will  not  be  obtained.  The  constant  tapping  of 
a  lo.ose  connecting  rod  on  the  crank  shaft  will  event- 
ually produce  crystallization  of  the  steel — result,  broken 


246  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

crank  shaft  and  possibly  other  parts  of  the  engine  dam- 
aged. ' ' 

If  the  parts  are  wanted  in  a  hurry,  it  is  possible  for 
any  competent  repair  man  to  rig  np  and  replace  the  lin- 
ing metal  himself,  though  this  will  not  be  a  profitable 
operation  if  the  parts  can  be  procured  from  the  factory  in 
time. 

The  repair  man  who  is  called  upon  to  replace  the 
bearing  metal  will  find  the  following  instructions  regard- 
ing remetalling  bearings  of  value.  The  method  described 
was  used  by  the  writer  while  in  charge  of  a  large  shop 
where  much  work  of  this  kind  was  done,  and  while  instruc- 
tions given  apply  specifically  to  lining  the  big  ends  of  con- 
necting rods  the  same  process  may  be  used  successfully 
on  any  other  bearings  where  the  mandrel  and  collars  can 
be  used,  the  dimensions  being  changed  to  suit  the  re- 
quirements of  the  worker.  Obviously  the  old  mictal  must 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  and  rod  end  made  ready  to  re- 
ceive the  new  lining  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  pour 
in  new  metal. 

In  the  case  mentioned  the  journals  of  the  crank  shaft 
were  two  inches  in  diameter  and  the  big  ends  of  the 
connecting  rods  were  worn  too  much  to  allow  of  adjusting. 
A  piece  of  pipe  about  9  inches  long  was  procured  and 
turned  down  in  a  lathe  until  it  was  a  shade  under  2''  in 
diameter,  which  made  a  hollow  mandrel  of  it.  A  piece  of 
steel  tubing  could  have  been  used  to  as  good  advantage 
had  any  been  available.  As  the  outside  of  the  bearing 
caps  were  machined  true  a  couple  of  set  collars  were  bored 
out  to  be  a  good  fit  on  the  mandrel,  and  while  still  in  the 
lathe  they  were  recessed  out  to  just  fit  over  the  outside 
of  the  big  ends,  as  shown  in  sketch.  Fig.  83.  One  of  these 
collars  was  placed  on  the  hollow  mandrel,  A,  after  which 


Bemet ailing  Connecting  Rods 


247 


the  mandrel  was  pushed  through  the  big  end,  and  the 

other  collar  was  put  on  the  other  side,  insuring  that  the 

mandrel  was  as  near  the  center  as  possible  for  it  to  be. 

The  assemblage  is  then  supported  on  a  couple  of  V- 


iHoUow  Alandrel 


I  > 


3 


:zzzzza 


A     I 


Lathe  SeJ 
METHOD  OF  POURING 


Ladle  . rf~ 


^^~/U  T'^'^-Block 


r 


^Connecting  Rod 


Connecting  Rod 


Height  Gauge 

\ 


0-^9^ 


Mandrel'' 


y^s=" 


MandreL    -, 


Straightedge 


tK 


Connecting  Rod 


a. 


^^^ 


-V-Block 


Surface  Plate 


Fig.  83. — Illustrations  Showing  Method  of  Rebabbitting  Connecting 
Rod  Bearings  at  A  and  Method  of  Testing  Connecting  Rod  Bearing 
Parallelism  at  B. 


blocks  which  are  supported  on  a  lathe  bed,  the  ends  of  the 
mandrel  lying  within  the  V's,  while  the  connecting  rod 
hangs  between  the  ways.  A  piece  of  solid  r-omxl  iron  or 
steel  which  will  go  inside  of  the  hollow  mandrel  should 
be  made  red  hot  while  the  anti-friction  metal  is  being 


248  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

melted  and  is  pushed  inside  the  mandrel  to  heat  it.  In 
a  minute  or  two  the  metal  may  be  poured  in  through 
B  to  fill  annulus  D,  and  as  the  metal  and  the  big  end 
caps  are  well  heated  the  molten  metal  will  flow  to  every 
IDoint. 

The  heating  of  the  mandrel  can  be  just  as  well  accom- 
plished by  directing  the  flame  from  a  blow  torch  or  Bun- 
sen  burner  into  the  opening.  After  the  metal  is  poured 
and  has  set  well  the  whole  may  be  easily  cooled  by  direct- 
ing a  blast  of  air  against  the  big  end.  During  the  pouring 
jDrocess  the  cap  is  separated  ^from  the  rod  end  by  shims 
of  oiled  cardboard.  This  is  aftei^vard  replaced  by  brass 
shims.  As  is  evident,  the  thinner  the  liners  and  the  great- 
er the  number  used,  the  more  sensitive  the  character  of  fu- 
ture adjustment  possible.  A  hollow  mandrel  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  a  solid  one  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  can 
be  heated  and  cooled.  The  mandrel  should  be  about  .025" 
smaller  than  the  crank  pins.  Vents  should  be  made  for 
the  heated  gases  by  grooving  the  face  of  each  of  the  collars 
nearest  the  big  end  and  on  the  same  side  as  the  hole 
through  which  the  metal  is  poured.  If  provision  is  not 
made  for  ''venting"  the  molten  metal  will  not  run  uni- 
formly and  will  become  honeycombed.  After  cooling,  the 
bearing  is  either  bored -out  in  a  lathe  to  the  size  of  the 
journal  or  scraped  to  a  fit  by  hand.  The  method  of  pour- 
ing the  molten  metal  is  clearly  shown  while  the  sectional 
view  makes  the  construction  and  application  of  the  man- 
drel clear.  The  same  method  may  be  used  to  rebabbitt 
main  boxes  except  that  a  pair  of  collars  will  be  needed 
for  each  bearing  and  a  long  mandrel  used  to  insure  proper 
alignment  of  the  three  bearings. 

Testing  Bearing  Parallelism. — It  is  not  possible  to  give 
other  than  general  directions  regarding  the  proper  degree 


Testing  Beaiing  Parallelism 


249 


of  tightening  for  a  connecting  rod  bearing,  but  as  a  guide 
to  correct  adjustment  it  may  be  said  that  if  the  connecting 
rod  cap  is  tightened  sufficiently  so  the  connecting  rod  will 
just  about  fall  over  from  a  vertical  position  due  to  the 
piston  weight  when  the  bolts  are  fully  tightened  up  as  in 
Fig.  84,  the  adjustment  will  be  nearly  correct.     As  pre- 


Fig.  84. — Connecting  Rod  Bearings  May  be  Easily  Fitted  to  the  Crank 
Shaft  if  This  Member  is  Removed  from  the  Engine  and  Supported 
by  Bench  Vise. 


viously  stated,  babbitt  or  white  metal  bearings  can  be  set 
up  more  tightly  than  bronze,  as  the  metal  is  softer  and  any 
high  spots  will  soon  be  leveled  down  with  the  running  of 
the  engine.  It  is  important  that  care  be  taken  to  preserve 
parallelism  of  the  wrist  pins  and  crank  shaft  while  scrap- 
ing in  bearings.  This  can  be  determined  in  several  ways. 
That  shown  at  Fig.  83,  B,  is  used  when  the  parts  are  not 
in  the  engine  assembly  and  when  the  connecting  rod  bear- 


Fig.  85. — Illustrating  Method  of  Scraping  In  Connecting  Rod  Bearings 
and  Tools  Used  in  This  Process. 


250 


Camshaft  and  Timing  Gears  251 

ing-  is  being  fitted  to  a  mandrel  or  arbor  the  same  size  as 
tlie  crank  pin.  The  arbor,  which  is  finished  very  smooth 
and  of  uniform  diameter,  is  placed  in  two  V-blocks  which 
in  turn  are  supported  by  a  level  surface  plate.  An  adjust- 
able height  gauge  may  be  tried,  first  at  one  side  of  the 
wrist  pin  which  is  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  con- 
necting rod,  then  at  the  other  and  any  variation  will  be 
easily  detennined  by  the  degree  of  tilting  of  the  rod. 
This  test  may  be  made  with  the  wrist  pin  alone  or  if  the 
piston  is  in  place  a  straight  edge  on  the  piston  top  may  be 
employed.  A  spirit  level  will  readily  show  any  inclination, 
while  the  straight  edge  is  used  in  connection  with  the 
height  gauge  as  indicated. 

Camshafts  and  Timing  Gears. — Knocking  sounds  are  also 
evident  if  the  camshaft  is  loose  in  its  bearings  and  also 
if  the  timing  gears  are  loose  on  the  shaft.  The  camshaft 
is  usually  supported  by  solid  bearings  of  the  removable 
bushing  type  having  no  compensation  for  depreciation.  If 
these  bearings  wear  the  only  remedy  is  replacement  with 
new  ones.  Another  point  to  watch  is  the  method  of  retain- 
ing the  camshaft  gear  in  place.  On  some  engines  the  gear 
is  fastened  to  a  flange  on  the  camshaft  by  retaining  screw. 
These  are  not  apt  to  become  loose,  but  where  reliance  is 
placed  on  a  key,  as  in  the  Ford,  the  camshaft  gear  may 
often  be  loose  on  its  supporting  member.  The  only  remedy 
is  to  enlarge  the  key  slot  in  both  gear  and  shaft  and  to  fit 
a  larger  retaining  key. 

If  the  camshaft  is  sprung  or  twisted  it  will  alter  the 
valve  timing  to  such  an  extent  that  the  smoothness  of 
operation  of  the  engine  will  be  materially  affected.  If 
this  condition  is  suspected  the  cam  shaft  may  be  swung 
on  lathe  centers  and  turned  to  see  if  it  runs  out  and  if 
bent  it  can  be  straightened  in  any  of  the  usual  forms  of 


252  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

shaft  straightening  machines.  The  shaft  may  be  twisted 
without  being  sprung.  This  can  only  be  determined  by 
supporting  one  end  of  the  shaft  in  an  index  head  and  the 
other  end  on  a  milling  machine  center.  The  cams  are  then 
checked  to  see  that  they  are  separated  by  the  proper  de- 
gree of  angularity.  This  process  is  one  that  requires  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  valve  timing  of  the  engine  in 
question  and  is  best  done  at  the  factory  where  the  engine 
was  made.  The  timing  gears  should  also  be  examined  to 
see  if  the  teeth  are  worn  enough  so  that  considerable  back 
lash  or  lost  motion  exists  between  them.  A  worn  timing 
gear  not  only  produces  noise  but  it  will  cause  the  time  of 
opening  and  closing  of  the  engine  valves  to  vary  ma- 
terially. 

Valve  Timing  Method. — Among  the  factors  making  for 
efficient  operation  of  the  gasoline  engine,  especially  of  the 
multiple  cylinder  type  used  for  automobile  propulsion, 
there  is  none  of  more  importance  than  proper  valve  timing. 
In  the  Ford  four  cylinder  four-cycle  motor  there  are 
eight  of  these  members,  two  to  each  cylinder,  the  function 
of  the  inlet  valves  being  to  permit  the  cylinders  to  fill  with 
gas  while  the  exhaust  valves  open  to  clear  the  cylinders  of 
the  products  of  combustion.  The  inlet  valve  usually  opens 
when  the  piston  is  at  approximately  the  top  of  its  stroke 
in  the  cylinder  or  during  that  portion  of  the  engine  cycle 
where  the  piston  is  starting  to  go  down  to  draw  in  a  charge 
of  gas.  This  valve  is  opened  at  a  period  equal  to  the  down- 
stroke  of  the  piston  and  sometimes  more,  but  is  closed 
during  the  succeeding  compression,  explosion  and  scaveng- 
ing strokes.  The  operation  of  the  exhaust  valve  is  very 
much  the  same  as  the  inlet  except  that  it  is  opened  for  a 
longer  period,  starting  to  open  before  the  piston  has  com- 
pleted the  downward  stroke  produced  by  the  explosion  and 


Valve  Timing  Method  253 

is  sometimes  opened  slightly  after  the  end  of  the  return 
or  scavenging  stroke. 

AVhen  the  space  between  the  valve  stem  and  the  valve 
lifter  is  more  than  it  should  be  there  are  two  methods 
of  compensating  for  this  depreciation.  On  many  small 
motors  no  adjustment  is  provided  between  the  valve  stem 
and  the  valve  stem  plunger.  The  makers  of  the  Ford  car 
fonnerly  advised  drawing  the  valve  stem  out  until  the 
proper  space  existed  between  the  push  rod  and  the  stem. 
It  is  important  when  drawing  out  the  stem  or  lengthening 
it  not  to  bend  the  valve  stem  as  this  will  result  in  the 
valves  sticking,  or  in  any  event  the  bore  of  the  valve  stem 
guide  in  the  cylinder  will  be  worn  unevenly.  The  clear- 
ance between  the  pushrod  and  the  valve  stem  should  never 
be  greater  than  H2"  nor  less  than  Yq^'.  If  too  much  clear- 
ance is  present  the  valve  will  open  late  and  close  early. 
If  the  clearance  is  less  than  the  minimum  there  is  danger 
of  the  valve  remaining  partially  open  all  of  the  time  be- 
cause the  valve  stem  lengthens  due  to  expansion  produced 
by  the  heat  of  the  explosion.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
draw  down  a  valve  stem  this  should  be  done  by  peening  it 
for  about  %"  above  the  pinhole  or  key  slot. 

It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  set  the  clearance  exactlv 
as  it  should  be  on  those  types  of  engines  provided  with  an 
adjustment  screw  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered  in  the 
valve  plunger  or,  in  forms  having  fiber  inserts  in  the  top 
of  the  valve  plunger.  These  inserts  are  utilized  to  silence 
the  valve  action  and  may  be  easily  removed  and  replaced 
with  new  ones  when  worn.  A  simple  and  cheap  accessory 
that  can  be  obtained  on  the  open  market  can  be  used  to 
adjust  the  clearance  on  Ford  and  similar  type  motors. 
This  consists  of  a  number  of  stamped  steel  cups  that  can 
be  pushed  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  valve  stem  and  a 


254 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


INLET  VALVE  OrENS 


B 


Inlot  Valve  opens  1-8 
(Piston  travel  past  top 
center  on  1st  stroke. 


EXHAUSr  VALVE  OPENS 


Cam  Shaft  Settink 
Showing  position  of 
Exhaust  Cam,  Exhaust 
Valve,  Crank,  Connect- 
ing Rod  and  Piston  of 
first  Cylinder  when 
marked  tooth  and  simce 
on  Time  Gears  are  en- 
gased. 


Exhaust  opens  1-4  be- 
fore lower  center  on  3d 
stroke. 


INLET  VALVE  CLOSES 


Inlet  Valve  closes  1-4 
past  lower  center  on  Id 
stroke. 


EXIJALSr  VALVE  CLOSES 


'*'  Exhaust  valve   closes 

on  top  center  between 
3d  and  4th  stroke. 


Fig.  86. — Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Timing  Ford  Valves. 


number  of  thin  steel  washers  to  be  interposed  inside  of 
the  cup  and  between  the  bottom  of  that  member  and  the 
end  of  the  valve  stem  to  regulate  the  clearance  as  de- 
sired. 


Valve  Timing  in  Ford  Engines  255 

Valve  Timing-  in  Ford  Engines. — After  the  valves  have 
heen  ground  in  and  seated  properly  it  is  important  that  the 
timing  of  the  valves  be  verified.  As  the  valves  have  been 
properly  timed  when  the  engine  is  assembled  at  the  fac- 
torv  the  onlv  reason  for  checking  the  timing  would  be 
during  the  overhauling  when  the  camshaft  or  timing  gears 
have  been  removed  from  the  engine  base.  In  fitting  the 
large  timing  gear  to  the  camshaft  it  is  important  to  see 
that  the  first  cam  points  in  a  direction  opposite  from  the 
zero  mark  as  shown  at  Fig.  86,  E.  The  large  and  small 
time  gears  must  also  mesh,  so  that  the  tooth  marked  0  on 
the  small  timing  gear  will  coincide  with  a  similar  mark 
between  the  two  teeth  on  the  large  gear.  With  the  timing 
gears  set  as  indicated  the  exhaust  valve  in  No.  1  cylinder 
is  opened  and  the  intake  valve  closed. 

The  opening  and  closing  point  of  the  valves  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  intake  valve  opens  with  the  piston  Ke  of  an 
inch  down  from  top  center  as  shown  at  Fig.  86,  A.  The 
inlet  valve  closes  %q  inch  after  the  piston  has  reached  bot- 
tom center  as  shown  at  Fig.  86,  B,  the  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  piston  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder  casting  measur- 
ing 3/sth  inches.  The  exhaust  valve  opens  when  the  piston 
reaches  a  point  on  its  travel  from  %6th  inch  to  /4  inch  be- 
fore lower  center  on  third  stroke,  as  shown  at  Fig.  86,  C. 
The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  piston  head  to  the  top 
of  the  cylinder  casting  at  the  time  the  exhaust  valve  starts 
to  open  is  3%  inches.  The  exhaust  valve  should  close  on 
top  center  between  the  third  and  fourth  strokes  as  shown 
at  Fig.  86,  B.  The  piston  top  at  this  time  is  %6  inch  above 
the  cylinder  casting.  The  clearance  between  the  inisli  rod 
and  valve  stem  should  be  carefully  gauged  as  previously 
mentioned.  Obviously  this  gap  should  be  measured  when 
the  push  rod  is  at  the  extreme  lower  point  of  its  travel 


256  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

or  riding  on  the  rounded  portion  and  not  the  point  of  the 
cam. 

AATien  the  push  rods  or  valve  stems  become  worn  so  as 
to  leave  too  much  play  between  them,  it  is  best  to  replace 
with  new  push  rods.  The  operation  of  drawing  down  the 
valve  stems  requires  considerable  experience  and  the  price 
of  the  new  part  does  not  warrant  the  time  and  expense 
necessary  to  do  the  work  as  it  should  be  done.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  simple  clearance  adjusters  made  es- 
pecially for  Ford  valves  but  these  are  not  marketed  by 
the  Ford  people  and  can  only  be  obtained  from  supply 
houses.  If  the  valves  fail  to  seat  themselves  properly 
there  is  a  possibility  that  the  valve  springs  may  be  weak 
or  broken.  It  is  stated  that  a  weak  inlet  valve  spring 
will  not  affect  the  running  of  the  engine  as  much  as  a 
sluggish  acting  exhaust  valve  spring.  Weakness  in  a 
valve  spring  can  be  easily  detected  by  removing  the  cover 
plate  and  inserting  a  screw  driver  between  the  coils  of  the 
spring  while  the  engine  is  running.  Each  of  the  exhaust 
valve  springs  is  tried  in  turn,  and  if  the  extra  tension 
thus  produced  results  in  the  engine  picking  up  speed  the 
sjDring  is  too  weak  and  should  be  replaced  with  a  new 
one. 

Repairing  Ford  Magneto. — While  the  engine  is  disman- 
tled it  is  a  good  time  to  make  any  repairs  that  may  be 
necessary  to  the  magneto,  these  being  rarely  needed  on 
account  of  the  simplicity  of  the  device.  The  Ford  magneto 
consists  of  permanent  magnets,  and  there  is  not  much 
liabilitj^  of  their  losing  their  strength  unless  acted  upon  by 
some  outside  force,  though  cases  have  been  known  where 
much  of  the  magnetism  has  been  lost  due  to  overheating 
the  engine.  If  a  dry  or  storage  batterv^  has  been  attached 
to  the  magneto  terminal  by  mistake  the  magnet  strength 


Rejyairing  Fo?'d  Magneto  257 

may  be  weakened.  If  on  testing  with  a  special  instrument 
made  for  the  j^nrpose,  the  magneto  does  not  show  the 
proper  current,  instead  of  attempting  to  recharge  the 
magnets  the  best  and  cheapest  way  is  to  install  a  complete 
set  of  new  ones.  These  may  be  obtained  from  the  factory 
or  nearest  agent  and  will  be  placed  on  a  board  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  they  should  be  installed  on  the  fly- 
wheel. The  magnets  may  be  easily  removed  from  the  fly- 
wheel as  outlined  at  Fig.  82.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
when  assembling  the  magnets  and  lining  up  the  parts  so 
that  the  pole  pieces  of  the  magnets  will  be  separated  from 
the  surface  of  the  coil  spools  carried  by  the  stationary 
plate  by  no  more  than  %2nd  of  an  inch.  To  take  the  old 
magnets  from  the  flywheel  simply  remove  the  cap  screw 
and  bronze  screw  which  holds  each  in  place. 

The  magneto  is  often  blamed  when  the  trouble  is  a 
weak  current  that  results  by  waste  or  other  foreign  matter 
accumulating  under  the  current  collecting  contact  plunger 
which  is  held  in  place  by  the  binding  post  carrier  on  top  of 
the  transmission  case  cover.  Remove  the  three  screws 
which  serve  to  retain  this  collecting  terminal  in  place,  this 
allows  the  binding  post  to  spring  up  and  plunger  to  be 
withdrawn.  The  contact  pad  on  top  of  the  fixed  coil  as- 
sembly should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  end  of  the 
plunger  brightened  with  emery  cloth  before  it  is  replaced. 
The  magneto  cannot  be  reached  for  replacing  magnets 
without  taking  the  power  plant  out  of  the  car.  After  the 
crank  case  and  transmission  covers  are  off,  the  flywheel 
may  be  taken  off  of  the  flange  on  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft 
by  removing  four  cap  screws  that  hold  the  flywheel  to  that 
member.  Whenever  repairs  are  necessary  to  the  magneto 
such  as  replacing  magnets  or  making  sure  that  all  magnet 
retaining  screws  and  bolts  are  tight,  the  best  way  is  to 


258 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


have  the  parts  on  a  bench  where  they  may  be  easily 
reached,  as  shown  at  Fig.  82. 

Packing's  and  Gaskets  for  Ford  Motor. — If  the  power 
plant  has  been  taken  apart  it  may  be  found  desirable  to 
replace  the  various  gaskets  and  packing  members  with  new 
ones  when  reassembling  the  parts.  This  applies  especially 
to  the  felt  packings,  which  are  apt  to  be  torn  when  the 
pieces  resting  on  them  are  removed  quickly.    The  copper 


Fig.  87. — Copper  Asbestos  Gaskets  Used  on  Ford  Motor. 


asbestos  gaskets  which  are  used  as  packings  on  the  com- 
bustion chamber  end  of  the  engine  do  not  depreciate  as 
readily  as  those  made  of  felt,  though  when  these  flatten 
out  it  may  be  well  to  replace  them  with  new,  because  they 
are  so  cheap  that  it  would  be  questionable  economy  to  use 
them  if  there  was  any  doubt  about  their  condition. 

A  set  of  the  copper-asbestos  packings  for  the  cylinder 
heads  of  the  Ford  engine  is  shown  at  Fig.  87.  That  at  A, 
is  the  member  placed  between  the  cylinder  head  and  cylin- 


Gaskets  for  Ford  Motor  259 

der  block,  tliose  at  B  and  C  are  used  between  the  water 
connections,  tliose  at  E  are  placed  under  the  inlet  and  ex- 
haust manifolds ;  that  at  D  is  placed  between  the  carbure- 
tor and  flange  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  inlet  manifold, 
while  the  small  packing  at  F  is  used  at  the  lower  portion 
of  the  crank  case  or  flywheel  compartment  as  a  seating 
for  the  oil  drain  plug. 

The  felt  packings  are  clearly  shown  at  Fig.  88.  The 
strips  at  A,  are  j^laced  between  the  pressed  steel  crank 
case  member  and  the  cylinder  block.  The  piece  marked 
M,  is  employed  between  the  top  of  the  transmission  case 
and  the  pressed  steel  lower  portion.  The  large  packing,  C, 
is  placed  between  the  bottom  plate  of  the  crank  case  and 
the  pressed  steel  lower  crank  case  member.  Packing  D 
is  utilized  under  the  transmission  case  cover  plate  on 
late  model  Ford  cars,  while  that  shown  at  E  is  used 
on  some  of  the  earlier  models  having  a  square  cover 
plate. 

The  small  corner  pieces,  B,  are  used  on  the  valve  cham- 
ber cover  plates.  The  gasket,  F,  goes  between  the  mem- 
bers of  the  universal  joint  ball  housing.  Piece  H  fits 
under  the  magneto  collecting  brush  terminal  fitting. 
Washers  I,  J,  K  and  L,  are  oil  retention  members  for  the 
front  and  rear  axles.  The  control  bracket  felts  are  placed 
in  recesses  in  the  supporting  bearing  of  the  cross  shaft 
to  which  the  hand  brake  control  lever  is  fastened  and 
serve  to  retain  oil  and  insure  adequate  lubricity  of  the 
cross  shaft. 

The  crank  case  arm  felts  are  intended  to  be  placed  be- 
tween the  arms  and  the  frame  side  member.  The  strips 
shown  which  are  not  lettered  are  used  to  complete  the 
packing  between  the  timing  gear  case  portions  and  be- 
tween the  upper  transmission  case  and  round  portion 


260 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


against  which  it  fits  on  the  engine  base.  When  replac- 
ing either  the  copper  asbestos  or  felt  packings  it  is  well 
to  coat  these  with  heavy  shellac  before  the  j)arts  are  as- 
sembled. The  shellac  fills  any  irregularities  that  may 
exist  in  the  surfaces  and  prevents  oil  leakage. 


Fig.  88. — Group  Showing  Felt  Packings  for  Ford  Power  Plant  and  Also 
for  Retaining  Oil  in  Running  Gear  Parts. 


Precautions  in  Reassembling  Parts.— When  all  of  the 
essential  components  of  a  power  plant  have  been  care- 
fully looked  over  and  cleaned  and  all  defects  eliminated, 
either  by  adjustment  or  replacement  of  worn  portions,  the 
motor  should  be  reassembled,  taking  care  to  have  the 
parts  occupy  just  the  same  relative  positions  they  did  be- 


Precautions  in  lie  assembling  Parts  261 

fore  the  motor  was  dismantled.  As  each  part  is  added  to 
the  assemblage,  care  should  be  taken  to  insure  adequate 
lubrication  of  all  new  ijoints  of  bearing  by  squirting  lib- 
eral quantities  of  cylinder  oil  upon  them  with  a  hand  oil 
can  or  syringe  provided  for  the  purpose.  In  adjusting 
the  crank  shaft  bearings  tighten  them  one  at  a  time  and 
revolve  the  shaft  each  time  one  of  the  bearing  caps  is 
set  up  to  insure  that  the  newly  adjusted  bearing  does  not 
have  undue  friction.  All  retaining  keys  and  pins  must  be 
positively  placed  and  it  is  good  practice  to  cover  such  a 
part  with  lubricant  before  replacing  it  because  it  will  not 
only  drive  easier  but  the  part  may  be  removed  more 
easily  if  necessary  at  some  future  time  if  no  rust  collects 
around  it. 

Wlien  a  piece  is  held  by  more  than  one  bolt  or  screw, 
especially  if  it  is  a  casting  of  brittle  material  such  as  cast 
iron,  the  fastening  bolts  should  be  tightened  uniformly. 
If  one  bolt  is  tightened  more  than  the  rest  it  is  liable  to 
spring  the  casting  enough  to  break  it.  This  applies  es- 
pecially to  the  Ford  w^ater  connection  castings.  Spring 
washers,  check  nuts,  si)lit  pins  or  other  locking  means 
should  always  be  provided,  especially  on  parts  which  are 
in  motion  or  subjected  to  a  load.  When  reassembling  the 
inlet  and  exhaust  manifolds  it  is  well  to  use  only  perfect 
packings  or  gaskets  and  to  avoid  the  use  of  those  tli^t 
seem  to  have  hardened  up  or  flattened  out  too  much  in 
service.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  new  gaskets  it  is  im- 
perative to  employ  these  at  all  joints  on  manifold  because 
if  old  and  new  gaskets  are  used  together  the  new  ones  are 
apt  to  keep  the  manifold  from  bedding  properly  upon  the 
used  ones. 

It  is  well  to  coat  the  threads  of  all  bolts  and  screws 
subjected  to  heat,  such  as  cylinder  head  bolts  and  exhaust 


262  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

pipe  retaining  nut,  with  a  mixture  of  graphite  and  oil. 
Those  that  enter  the  water  jacket  should  be  covered  with 
white  or  read  lead  or  pipe  thread  compound.  Gaskets 
will  hold  better  if  coated  with  shellac  before  manifold  or 
other  parts  are  placed  over  them.  The  shellac  fills  any 
irregularities  in  the  joints  and  assists  materially  in  pre- 
venting leakage  after  the  joint  is  made  up  and  the  coating 
has  a  chance  to  set.  In  replacing  cylinder  head  packings 
on  ears  like  the  Ford  it  is  well  to  run  the  engine  for  a 
short  while,  several  minutes  at  the  most,  without  any 
water  in  the  jacket  in  order  to  heat  the  head  up  thor- 
oughly. It  will  usually  be  found  possible  to  tighten  down 
a  little  more  on  all  of  the  cylinder  head  retaining  bolts 
after  this  is  done  because  if  the  gasket  has  been  coated 
with  shellac  the  surplus  material  will  have  burnt  otf  and 
the  entire  packing  bedded  down.  Care  should  be  taken 
when  using  shellac,  white  or  red  lead,  etc.,  not  to  supply 
so  much  that  the  surplus  will  run  into  the  cylinder,  water 
jacket  or  gas  passages. 

Taking  Down  Transmission. — After  the  car  has  been  in 
use  for  a  considerable  period,  especially  in  sections  of  the 
countiy  where  frequent  use  of  the  slow  speed  gearing  is 
necessary,  the  transmission  will  become  very  noisy  in 
action  and  will  rattle  and  grind  when  either  the  slow  or 
reverse  brake  bands  are  operated.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  no  gears  in  operation  on  the  high  speed 
but  little  trouble  will  be  experienced  with  the  clutch  disc 
assembly  unless  the  disc  surfaces  have  become  roughened 
or  have  worn  enough  so  that  no  further  adjustment  is 
possible  with  a  clutch  adjusting  screw.  While  the  power 
plant  is  out  of  the  frame  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  take 
the  transmission  gearing  apart  and  examine  the  various 
fastenings  and  gears.     The  gears  are  not  apt  to  wear 


263 


264  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

% 

very  mucli  and  practically  the  only  trouble  will  be  depre- 
ciation of  the  bushings  that  form  bearings  for  the  triple 
gear  assembly  and  the  various  brake  drum  members. 

In  taking  the  transmission  gear  apart,  the  first  thing 
is  to  drive  out  the  clutch  spring  thrust  ring  pin  which  is 
shown  at  Fig.  89,  B.  This  releases  the  clutch  spring 
thrust  ring  and  the  clutch  spring  supports  and  makes 
it  possible  to  remove  the  clutch  spring,  clutch  shift  collar 
and  driving  plate.  The  driving  plate  can  only  be  taken 
off  after  the  screws  by  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  brake 
drum  and  clutch  carrier  are  taken  out.  This  exposes  the 
clutch  disc  assembly  as  shown  at  Fig.  89,  C.  The  clutch 
discs  are  carried  by  a  member  known  as  ' '  the  disc  drum ' ' 
shown  in  group  of  parts  A,  Fig.  89.  A  set  screw  passes 
through  this  member  to  key  it  securely  to  the  crank  shaft 
extension.  When  this  set  screw  has  been  properly 
loosened  the  clutch  disc  drum  may  be  removed  which 
leaves  the  assembly  as  shown  at  Fig.  89,  D.  This  assem- 
bly, consisting  of  the  reverse  drum,  slow  speed  and  brake 
drums  and  the  triple  gears,  is  held  on  the  fly^vheel.  This 
assembly  may  be  easily  Avithdrawn  from  the  flywheel  and 
the  crank  shaft  extension  which  is  known  as  the  "trans- 
mission" shaft  which  leaves  the  group  as  shown  at  Fig. 
89,  E.  In  order  to  take  this  down,  the  driven  gear  must 
be  removed  from  the  brake  drum  shaft  extension,  which 
will  permit  the  three  drums  to  be  pulled  apart. 

The  point  to  examine  carefully  after  the  transmission 
has  been  disassembled  is  to  note  if  the  bushings  in  the 
triple  gear  assemblies  or  if  the  pins  attached  to  the  fly- 
wheel used  for  supporting  them  are  worn.  If  there  is 
considerable  play  between  the  bushings  and  the  pins  the 
bushings  should  be  forced  out  of  the  triple  gear  assem- 
blies and  new.  ones  inserted  in  their  place.     The  triple 


Making  Transmission  Repairs  265 

gear  pins  should  also  be  replaced  with  new  ones.  The 
bushings  in  the  reverse  drum  and  gear  and  in  the  interior 
of  the  slow  speed  drum  and  gear  should  be  carefully 
measured  to  make  sure  that  the  slow  speed  drum  is  a 
good  fit  on  the  extending  shaft  of  the  brake  drum  and 
that  the  reverse  drum  is  a  proper  fit  on  the  extension  of 
the  slow  speed  drum.  If  these  bushings  are  worn  so 
that  considerable  looseness  obtains,  the  old  ones  should 
be  driven  out  and  new  ones  forced  in  under  an  arbor 
press. 

Before  reassembling  the  brake  drum  assembly,  care 
must  be  taken  to  fit  the  bushings  so  they  will  turn  freely 
on  the  members  by  which  they  are  supported.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  parts  to  each  other  in  the  complete  assembly 
can  be  readily  understood  by  referring  to  Fig.  27,  which 
is  a  sectional  view  of  the  transmission  gearing.  The 
surfaces  of  the  brake,  slow  speed  and  reverse  drums 
should  not  be  cut  or  scored  as  might  result  if  the  brake 
lining  has  been  improperly  applied  and  iron  rivets  used 
instead  of  those  supplied  by  the  Ford  Compam^  It  is 
not  only  important  to  use  the  proper  rivets  but  they 
should  be  properly  countersunk. 

The  transmission  clutch  discs  should  be  removed  from 
the  assembly,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  inspected  to  see  if 
these  are  smooth  or  if  the  surfaces  are  badly  scored.  If 
the  contacting  faces  are  ridged,  which  would  result  if  the 
operator  continually  slipped  the  clutch,  the  discs  should 
be  smoothed  off  if  the  ridges  are  not  deep  and  new  ones 
used  if  the  surfaces  are  badly  scored.  While  taking  the 
transmission  gear  apart  is  not  a  difficult  operation, 
some  skill  is  needed  to  insure  correct  reassembling. 

The  first  operation  is  to  assemble  the  driven  gear, 
reverse  drum  and  gear,  slow  speed  drum  and  gear  and 


266  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

brake  drum,  all  of  which  are  shown  at  Fig.  89,  A,  to  form 
the  group  shown  at  Fig.  89,  E.  Place  the  brake  drams 
on  a  bench  or  table  with  the  hub  extending  vertically, 
then  place  the  slow  speed  drum  over  this  hub  with  the 
gears  uppermost.  The  reverse  drum  is  then  assembled 
over  the  hub  of  the  slow  speed  drum  with  its  gear  mem- 
ber uppermost.  Next,  place  two  Woodruff  keys  utilized 
to  driving  the  pinion  marked  "Driven  Gear"  shown  at 
A,  Fig.  89,  in  the  key  ways  cut  into  the  brake  drum  hub 
just  above  the  slow  speed  gear.  Put  the  driven  gear  in 
place  with  the  teeth  downward  so  they  will  come  next  to 
the  slow  speed  gear.  Take  the  three  triple  gears  and 
mesh  them  with  the  driven  gear  so  that  the  punch  marks 
on  the  teeth  correspond,  the  reverse  gear,  or  smallest  one 
of  the  three  comprising  the  assembly,  being  downward. 
"When  the  triple  gears  have  been  properly  meshed  they 
should  be  tied  in  place  by  passing  a  cord  or  wire  around 
the  outside  of  the  three  gear  assemblies  which  is  cut  and 
removed  when  the  group  is  in  place.  This  group  then 
has  the  appearance  shown  at  Fig.  89,  E. 

The  next  step  is  to  assemble  group  E  on  the  flywheel. 
The  fl}^wheel  is  placed  on  the  bench  with  its  face  down- 
ward so  that  the  transmission  shaft  projects  vertically. 
Group  E  is  inverted  so  that  the  triple  gear  assembly  will 
face  the  flj-wheel,  then  the  group  is  pushed,  on  the  trans- 
mission shaft  allowing  it  to  settle  in  such  a  position  that 
the  triple  gear  supporting  pins. on  the  fij^vheel  will  pass 
through  the  bushings  in  the  triple  gear  assembly.  This 
will  bring  the  brake  drum  on  top  as  shown  at  Fig.  89,  D. 
The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  fit  the  clutch  drum  key  in  the 
transmission  shaft  and  press  the  clutch  disc  carrier  drum 
in  place  on  the  shaft,  locking  it  into  position  with  a  set- 
screw  provided  for  that  purpose.     The  distance  plate, 


Bcasscmhling  Transmission  267 

wliicli  is  a  heavier  disc  than  the  clutch  plates,  is  put  on 
the  clutch  drum  tirst,  then  a  small  disc  which  is  followed 
by  a  large  one,  then  placing  another  small  disc  and  al- 
ternating large  and  small  ones  until  the  entire  set  of 
discs  is  in  position,  a  large  one  or  member  having  key- 
ways  in  its  outer  periphery,  being  on  top.  Care  should 
be  taken  never  to  have  a  small  disc  or  one  with  keys  cut 
in  its  inner  periphery  on  top  because  it  is  liable  to  fall 
over  the  clutch  drum  w^hen  changing  the  speed  from  high 
to  low,  and  as  a  result  one  would  be  unable  to  re-engage 
the  high  speed  clutch. 

The  appearance  with  the  clutch  disc  drum  and  the 
clutch  discs  in  place  is  shown  at  Fig,  89,  C.  The  next 
step  is  to  put  the  clutch  disc  ring  over  the  clutch  drum, 
then  put  the  clutch  i^usli  ring  over  the  clutch  drum  and 
on  top  of  the  disc  ring  with  the  three  pins  projecting 
upward  as  shown  in  group  of  parts  B,  Fig.  89.  The  re- 
maining parts  to  be  assembled  are  placed  in  the  order  to 
be  foUow^ed  in  replacing  them.  Bolt  the  driving  plate  in 
position  on  the  brake  drum  so  the  adjusting  screws  of  the 
clutch  fingers  will  bear  against  the  clutch  push  ring  pins. 
Before  proceeding  further  the  Ford  Company  advises 
the  worker  to  test  the  transmission  by  moving  the  plates 
or  drums  with  the  hands.  If  the  transmission  is  properly 
assembled  the  flywheel  will  revolve  freely  while  holding 
any  of  the  drums  stationary  or  vice  versa. 

The  clutch  parts  may  be  assembled  on  the  driving 
plate  hub  as  follows :  Slip  the  clutch  shift  on  the  hub  so 
the  small  end  rests  on  the  ends  of  the  clutch  finger,  next 
put  on  the  clutch  spring  with  the  clutch  support  inside 
so  the  flange  of  that  member  will  rest  on  the  upper  coil 
of  the  spring.  Next  place  clutch  spring  thrust  ring  with 
notched  end  down  and  press  into  place,  inserting  the  pin 


CONTROL    PEDAL 
ASSEMBLY 


TOP  HALF  OF 
GEAR   CASE 


MAGNETO  TERMINAL 


SLOW  SPEED 
BAND  ADJUSTMENT 


Fig.  90. — Showing  How  Transmission  Cover  is  Removed  to  Permit 
Reaching  Transmission  Brake  Bands. 


268 


Belining  Brake  Bands  269 

in  the  driving  plate  linb  through  the  holes  in  the  side  of 
the  spring  support.  The  easiest  method  of  compressing 
the  spring  sufficiently  to  insert  this  pin  is  to  loosen  the 
clutch  finger  tension  by  backing  out  the  adjusting  screw. 
When  tightening  up  the  clutch  again  the  spring  should 
be  compressed  to  a  length  of  2  or  2M^o  inches  to  insure 
against  the  clutch  discs  slipping.  The  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  screws  in  the  driving  plate  fingers 
are  adjusted  uniformly  in  order  to  obtain  even  compres- 
sion of  the  clutch  spring. 

Relining-  Brake  Bands. — The  parts  of  the  transmission 
gear  that  will  wear  soonest  and  which  will  need  inspection 
and  repair  long  before  the  bushings  of  the  gearing  have 
worn  are  the  friction  linings  in  the  three  transmission 
brake  bands.  The  only  way  a  new  lining  can  be  put  on 
is  to  remove  the  brake  band  from  the  transmission  as- 
sembh%  which  can  be  done  without  taking  the  power  plant 
out  of  the  frame.  The  first  step  is  to  take  off  the  door  on 
top  of  the  transmission  cover  and  to  turn  the  reverse 
adjustment  nut  and  the  brake  adjustment  nut  to  the  ex- 
treme end  of  the  thread  on  the  pedal  shaft.  This  per- 
mits the  brake  bands  to  expand  away  from  the  drum.  It 
is  also  important  to  slack  off  the  slow  speed  adjusting 
screw.  Next  remove  the  bolts  holding  the  transmission 
cover  to  the  crank  case  and  lift  off  the  cover  assembly 
as  shown  at  Fig.  90. 

Slii^  the  band  nearest  the  flj^vheel  over  the  first  of  the 
triple  gears,  then  turn  the  band  around  so  that  the  open- 
ing is  downward.  The  band  can  now  be  removed  by 
lifting  upward,  as  shown  at  Fig.  91.  The  operation  is 
more  easily  accomplished  if  the  three  sets  of  gears  are 
so  i:)laced  that  one  set  is  just  a  little  to  the  right  of  center 
at  the  top.    Each  band  is  removed  in  the  same  way.    It 


270  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

is  necessary  to  push  each  band  forward  onto  the  triple 
gear  assemblies  'as  it  is  only  at  this  point  that  there  is 
room  enough  in  the  crank  case  to  allow  the  upstanding 
slotted  ears  on  the  transmission  bands  to  be  turned  down. 
The  bands  are  replaced  by  reversing  the  operation. 
After  being  placed  in  the  upright  position  on  drum,  a 
cord  is  passed  around  the  ears  of  the  three  bands  so  that 
when  putting  on  the  transmission  cover  no  trouble  will 
be  experienced  in  having  the  pedal  shafts  rest  in  the 
notches  made  to  receive  them  in  the  band  ears.  The  clutch 
release  ring  must  be  placed  in  the  rear  groove  of  the 
clutch  shift  ring.  When  the  cover  is  in  place  remove  the 
cord  that  held  the  bands  together  while  the  cover  was 
being  installed. 

The  operation  of  relining  a  brake  band  is  a  relatively 
simple  one,  consisting  only  of  pulling  otf  the  old  brake 
lining  and  driving  out  the  retaining  rivets  from  the  holes 
in  the  band.  A  new  lining  is  placed  inside  the  band  and 
a  piece  of  steel  bar  stock  is  placed  in  the  vise  as  shown 
in  Fig.  92,  to  form  a  backing  against  which  the  special 
rivets  are  driven  by  means  of  a  steel  drift  or  rivet  set  to 
clinch  the  lining  securely  in  place.  The  linings  furnished 
by  the  Ford  makers  are  the  only  ones  that  should  be  used 
because  serious  ignition  trouble  may  be  occasioned  by 
particles  of  wire  or  impregnating  compounds  dropping 
oif  of  linings  not  made  for  this  purpose  getting  around 
the  magneto  current  collecting  plunger. 

Rear  Axle  Troubles  and  Remedies. — If  continual  grind- 
ing noises  are  heard  in  the  rear  axle  when  the  car  is 
being  operated  on  the  high  speed  drive,  this  is  a  sign 
that  the  gears  or  the  bearings  in  the  rear  axle  are  worn 
and  calls  for  a  thorough  overhauling  of  that  member. 
Wear  in  bearings  can  be  tested  by  jacking  up  the  rear 


Removing  Transmission  Bands 


271 


cikI  and  lifting  upon  the  wheels  in  the  same  way  as  ad- 
vised for  testing  the  emergency  or  rear  hub  brakes.  If 
it  is  possible  to  move  the  wheel  up  and  down  it  indicates 
that  either  the  roller  bearings  or  the  axle  is  worn.    Steps 


B/?A/<£  BAND  EXPANDED 
FOR  REMOVAL 


BRAKE  BANDS 
IN  PLACE 


PLANETARY 
GEARS 


Fig.  91. — Removing  Transmission  Brake  Band  for  Replacing 

Friction  Lining. 


272  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

should  be  taken  to  correct  this,  because  wear  at  this  point 
imposes  great  strains  on  the  roller  bearings  at  either  side 
of  the  differential. 

After  a  car  has  been  in  use  for  a  time  and  especially 
if  the  differential  housing  has  not  been  kept  properly 
lubricated,  the  babbitt  thrust  collars  at  each  side  of  the 
differential  and  the  bronze  bushings  in  the  differential 
case  may  wear  sufficiently  so  that  the  bevel  driving  gears 
will  not  mesh  properly.  The  best  way  of  making  axle 
repairs  is  to  take  this  member  apart  after  it  has  been 
removed  from  the  chassis  and  carefully  examine  all  worn 
parts.  The  first  step  in  removing  the  rear  axle  is  to  jack 
up  the  car  and  remove  the  rear  wheels  as  previously  de- 
scribed for  inspecting  the  hub  brakes.  Take  out  the  four 
bolts  connecting  the  universal  joint  ball  retaining  cap  to 
the  transmission  case  and  cover.  Disconnect  the  hub 
brake  rods  from  the  cross  shaft  to  which  the  hand  lever 
is  fastened.  Raise  the  frame  so  that  the  weight  will  be 
released  which  will  permit  of  removing  the  spring 
shackles  or  the  spring  perches  from  the  rear  axle  housing 
flanges  if  this  method  is  preferred. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  wheels  while  the 
axle  is  under  the  car  as  the  spring  may  be  disconnected 
from  the  spring  perches  by  taking  off  the  spring  shackles. 
Some  repairmen  prefer  to  leave  the  wheels  on  as  it  en- 
ables them  to  roll  the  axle  out  from  under  the  car.  The 
first  step  in  taking  down  the  axle  is  to  remove  the  retain- 
ing nuts  at  the  end  of  the  radius  rods.  Then  to  remove 
I  the  drive  shaft  tube  by  taking  off  the  nuts  on  the  six 

retaining  studs  holding  the  drive  shaft  assembly  to  the 
rear  axle  housing.  Next  remove  the  bolts  which  hold 
the  two  halves  of  the  differential  housing  together.  The 
wheels  must  be  removed  from  the  axle  shaft  to  permit 


STEEL  DRIF7 


Fig.  92.— How  Friction  Limiig  is  Riveted  to  Brake  Bands. 


273 


274  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

one  to  spread  the  housings  apart  as  shown  at  Fig.  93, 
and  obtain  access  to  the  dit¥erential  gear.  The  two  halves 
of  the  axle  housing  may  be  removed  entirely,  if  desired, 
thus  leaving  the  differential  gear  with  the  two  wheel  drive 
shafts  extending  from  it,  one  at  either  side. 

The  gear  teeth  should  be  carefully  examined,  espe- 
cially those  on  the  bevel  drive  pinion  which  are  apt  to  wear 
more  quickly  than  those  of  the  bevel  ring  gear  on  account 
of  their  being  a  lesser  number  to  transmit  the  power.  If 
the  pinion  teeth  surfaces  have  flaked  or  if  portions  of  the 
teeth  are  broken,  a  new  pinion  should  be  installed  in  place 
of  the  defective  one.  Before  installing  a  new  pinion  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  there  is  no  lost  motion  in 
either  the  ball  or  roller  bearings,  back  of  the  pinion. 
Any  play  in  these  members  must  be  removed  by  fitting 
new  bearings  because  these  are  the  most  important  bear- 
ings in  the  entire  axle  mechanism.  Any  play  in  these 
bearings  may  result  in  loss  of  alignment  between  the  driv- 
ing and  driven  gears. 

The  pinion  may  be  easily  removed  from  the  end  of  the 
drive  shaft  by  taking  out  the  locking  pin  passing  through 
the  castelated  nut  and  removing  the  nut,  then  drawing 
the  pinion  off  the  drive  shaft  with  a  suitable  gear  puller. 
The  babbitt  thrust  washers  and  the  steel  plates  on  each 
side  of  them  should  be  examined  to  see  that  these  are  not 
worn  and  the  axles  should  be  grasped  and  moved  up  and 
down  to  see  if  there  is  any  play  between  them  and  the 
differential  casing.  If  any  looseness  is  present  at  this 
point  it  is  because  the  bronze  bushings  in  the  differential 
casing  that  bear  on  the  hubs  of  the  compensating  gears 
have  worn.  The  difl'erential  casing  is  taken  apart  by  un- 
loosening the  through  bolts  which  frees  the  two  halves 
of  the  casing.    This  exposes  the  compensating  gears,  and 


Bear  Axle  Repairs 


275 


if  these  have  heeii  damaged  as  might  result  if  a  piece  of 
broken  pinion  tooth  was  to  get  into  the  differential 
mechanism^  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  compensatirbg 
gears  from  the  axle  shaft. 

On  examination  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gears  are  keyed 
on  and  are  held  in  position  by  a  ring  which  is  in  two 


BEV£L   DRIVE 
PINION 


END   OF 

TORQUE 
TU3E  " 


BEJEL    PING  GEAR 
/ 
/   ^^  RIGHT  HOUSING 


THRUST  WASHEP 
DIFFERENTIAL 

ROLLER  SEARING 


rig.  93. — Rear  Axle  PartiaUy  Disassembled  to  Show  Differential  and 

Supporting  Bearings. 


halves  and  which  fits  in  a  groove  in  a  shaft.  To  remove 
the  gears  they  must  be  forced  down  on  the  shaft  away 
from  the  end  to  which  they  are  secured  in  order  to  expose 
the  rings  which  are  removed  from  the  grooves  to  per- 
mit the  gears  to  be  forced  off  the  end  of  the  shaft.  If 
the  roller  bearings  have  worn  and  the  shaft  is  not  cut  or 
worn  in  at  the  bearing  point  a  new  roll  and  cage  assembly 


276  The  Ford  Model  T  Car 

may  be  installed.  Sometimes  the  steel  lining  or  she] 
placed  in  tlie  axle  housing  will  wear.  This  may  be  easil; 
removed  and  a  new  one  inserted.  If  the  axle  shaft  is  re 
duced  in  diameter  at  the  bearing  point  the  only  means  o 
restoration  possible  is  to  replace  the  entire  axle  shafi 
Leakage  of  oil  or  grease  out  of  the  axle  is  usually  becaus 
the  two  halves  are  not  securely  bolted  together  if  the  leal 
is  around  the  differential  housing  or  because  the  felt  re 
taining  washers  at  the  wheel  end  of  the  axles  have  depre 
ciated.  This  may  be  suspected  if  the  brakes  have  become 
fouled  with  oil. 

Miscellaneous  Chassis  Parts. — There  are  a  number  o 
minor  points  about  the  chassis  which  demand  inspectioi 
and  in  some  cases  adjustment  when  a  car  is  overhauled 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  front  axle  and  steer 
ing  connections.  The  front  wheels  should  be  inspected  t( 
make  sure  that  they  are  in  proper  adjustment  and  tha 
they  run  smoothly  without  appreciable  side  play.  TIk 
bearings  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  looked  ove: 
to  see  that  there  are  no  broken  balls  and  that  the  conei 
and  ball  races  have  not  become  pitted  or  roughened  oi 
the  ball  track.  If  there  is  much  play  in  the  steering  rod: 
or  in  the  bearings  supj)orting  the  steering  spindle  bol 
the  only  remedy  is  to  drive  out  the  worn  bushings  anc 
replace  with  new  ones,  which  will  be  an  inexpensiv( 
operation. 

If  the  front  wheel  is  in  proper  adjustment  it  shoulc 
spin  easily  and  come  to  rest  with  the  tire  valve  at  th( 
bottom.  If  the  ball  bearings  in  the  front  wheels  weai 
out  quickly  it  is  usually  due  to  water  getting  into  th( 
bearings,  the  use  of  lubricant  containing  acid  or  impropen 
bearing  adjustment.  One  can  be  sure  that  no  water  wil 
get  into  the  bearings  if  the  felt  washer  on  the  inside  oJ 


Miscellaneous  Chassis  Parts  277 

the  wheel  hub  is  in  proper  condition  and  if  the  front  hub 
interior  is  tilled  with  the  proper  grade  of  mineral  grease. 
The  rear  wheels  should  be  inspected  after  the  car  has  been 
driven  for  a  time  to  make  sure  that  these  fit  the  taper 
ends  of  the  axle  shafts  tightly. 

If  there  is  considerable  rattling  and  knocking  at  the 
front  end  of  the  car  and  the  trouble  is  not  due  to  loose 
engine  bearings  it  is  often  caused  by  the  ball  joint  at  the 
end  of  the  front  axle  radius  member  being  loose.  This 
may  be  tightened  up  by  removing  the  cap  and  grinding 
off  some  of  the  cap  face  in  order  to  have  it  set  more 
tightly  against  the  ball  and  to  force  that  member  into 
more  intimate  contact  with  the  hemispherical  seat  on 
the  front  side  of  the  fl^-wheer  compartment.  Special 
spring  adjusted  caps  are  now  furnished  by  the  Ford 
Company.  Eattling  is  also  caused  by  loose  steering  con- 
nections and  by  loose  mud  guards. 

Squeaking  noises  result  when  the  springs  become  rusty 
and  no  lubricant  is  present  between  the  leaves.  While  the 
car  is  being  overhauled  it  is  a  good  plan  to  remove  the 
springs  from  the  chassis  and  to  take  these  apart,  cleaning 
off  the  surfaces  with  emery  cloth  and  smearing  them  with 
a  mixture  of  graphite  and  oil  before  reassembling.  It  is 
a  very  simple  matter  to  remove  the  springs  from  the 
Ford  frame  as  these  are  held  by  readily  detachable  spring 
clips,  shown  at  Fig.  93.  Both  front  and  rear  springs  may 
be  removed  by  taking  off  two  spring  clips  and  two  spring 
shackles.  It  is  important  to  jack  up  the  frame  so  the 
weight  will  be  taken  off  the  springs  before  any  attempt  is 
made  to  remove  these  from  the  chassis. 

After  a  car  has  been  in  service  two  or  three  vears, 
excessive  play  in  the  steering  gear  may  result  from  de- 
preciation of  the  teeth  of  the  small  planetary  pinions  and 


278 


The  Ford  Model  T  Car 


internal  gear  mounted  under  the  steering  wheel  spider. 
These  must  be  replaced  with  new  ones  when  worn.  The 
steering  wheel  is  removed  from  the  steering  column  by 
unloosening  the  nut  on  top  of  the  wheel  spider  and  pulling 
off  the  spider  hub  from  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  fastened. 
The  interior  of  the  steering  gear  may  be  easily  inspected 
after  the  steering  wheel  is  removed  by  loosening  a  set 


steering  Knuckle 


Steering  Spindle 


Pig.  94. — Outlining  Method  of  Ford  Front  and  Rear  Spring  Retention. 


screw  and  unscrewing  the  brass  cap  that  is  a  cover  for 
the  reduction  gear  case.  If  a  wheel  puller  is  not  available 
for  taking  the  steering  wheel  off  of  the  steering  post  it 
may  be  driven  off  of  the  shaft  with  a  block  of  wood  and 
a  hammer. 

In  addition  to  the  main  points  mentioned  there  are  a 
number  of  minor  bearing  points  such  as  the  bushings  in 
the  spring,,  eyes,  the  shackle  bolts  and  the  various  rod 


31isceUaneous  Chassis  Parts  279 

ends  and  pins  at  the  joints  of  the  control  rods  wliich  will 
wear  and  produce  their  quota  of  noise.  The  bolts  em- 
ployed for  holding-  the  body  to  the  chassis  sometimes 
loosen,  this  resulting  in  quite  a  severe  pounding  noise 
when  the  car  is  operated  over  anything  but  the  smoothest 
highway. 


THE  END 


r 


INDEX 


Abrasive  for  Valve  Grinding 
Action  of  Cooling  System     . 
Action   of   Differential   Gear 
Action    of    Ignition    System 
Action  of  Timer     .... 
Adjusting   Carburetor 
Adjusting  High  Speed  Clutch 
Adjusting  Main  Bearings      . 
Adjusting    Transmission 
Adjusting    Vibrators 
Adjustment    of    Carburetors 
Adjustment  of   Fan   Belt 
Adjustment  of  Front  Wheels 
Adjustment  of  Spark  Points 
Air  and  Gas  Mixtures  Suited  For 
Air  Gap  of  Spark   Plugs 
Anti-freezing  Solutions     . 
Assembling   Transmission 
Automobile  Essentials 
Axle    Bearings 


Fuc 


PAGE 

231 
90 
120 
75 
77 
193 
200 
239 
198 
191 
70 
197 
202 
190 
66 
189 
153 
266 
23 
116 


B 


Ball   Bearings,   Front   Wheel 
Ball    Thrust    Bearing        .      . 
Bearings,  Anti-friction 
Binding  Transmission  Bands 
Body   Construction 
Brake,   Adjustment   of   Foot 
Brake  Bands,  How  to  Remove 
Brake  Shoes,  Replacement  of 
Brake,  Transmission     . 
Brakes,  How  to  Test  Wheels 


117 
117 
116 
201 

40 
201 
269 
208 
123 

204 


281 


282  Index 

PAGE 

Brakes,  Eear  Wheel 124 

Brakes,  Why  Used 123 


C 

Camshaft  Speed 61 

Camshaft,   Why   Used 59 

Camshafts  and  Timing  Gears 251 

Carbon  Deposits,  Effects  of 219 

Carbon   Deposits,   Eemoving 222 

Carburetion  Principles 63 

Carburetion  System 62 

Carburetor  Adjustment 70 

Carburetor,  What  It  Should  Do 67 

Carburetors,  Action  of 69 

Carburetors,    Float   Feed 69 

Causes  of  Overheating 197 

Caustic  Soda  Solution  for  Eemoving  Sediment    .......  195 

Change  Speed   Gearing  Eepairs 262 

Change  Speed  Gearing,  Why  Used 105 

Chassis  Parts,  Miscellaneous 276 

Clutch  Forms  and  Eequirements 102 

Clutch,  How  to  Adjust  High  Speed 200 

Clutch,  Slow  Speed 201 

Clutch,    Why    Needed 100 

Combustion,  Definition  of 63 

Compression  Stroke 50 

Connecting  Eod  Design 57 

Connecting  Eods,   Adjusting 245 

Connecting    Eods,    Eemetalling .      .      .  247 

Construction  of  Muffler 97 

Controlling  The  Ford  Car 142 

Cooling  System   Parts 90 

Cooling  Systems  Generally  Used 88 

Cracked  Water  Jacket,  How  to  Eepair 224 

Crank  Shaft  and  Bearings 61 


D 

Deposits  in   Eadiator,   Cause   of 195 

Deposits  in  Eadiator,  Eemoval  of 195 

Differential   Gear  Action      , 120 


Index  283 

PAGE 

Differential  Gear,  Why  Needed 119 

Driving  Instructions,  General 146 

Dry  Cells,  How  Wired 81 

E 

Electric  Lighting  Fixtures 160 

Engine   Bearings,   Inspection  of 236 

Engine,  Causes  of  Intermittent  Action 186 

Engine  Fails  To  Start,  What  To  Do  When 141 

Engine,  Firing   Order   of 54 

Engine,  How  to  Dismantle 215 

Engine,  How  to  Start 134 

Engine  Parts  and  Functions 55 

Engine  Parts,  How  To  Eemove 218 

Engine  Stop,   Causes  For 180 

Exhaust   or  Scavenging   Stroke 52 

Explosion  Effect 52 

F 

Fan   Belt   Adjustment 197 

Faults  in  Power  Plant,   Symptoms 210 

Firing  Order  of  Ford  Engine 54 

Fitting    New    Piston    Rings 234 

Flame   of   Exhaust   as   Mixture   Index 193 

Flexibility  of  Running  Gear 33 

Flywheel,   Purpose   of 61 

Ford  Braking  System 123 

Ford  Change  Speed  Gearing 106 

Ford   Cooling   System 89 

Ford  Float  Feed  Carburetor 69 

Ford  Magneto  Repairs 256 

Ford  Muffler  Action 96 

Ford  Wiring  Diagram •.  76 

Four  Cycle  Engine  Action 46 

Four  Cylinder  Advantages 55 

Frame    Assembly   Details 37 

Freezing  Points   of   Cooling  Solutions 155 

Friction  Clutch  Action 102 

Front  Wheel  Bearings 117 

Front  Wheels,  Adjustment  of 202 


284  Index 

PAGE 

Fuel  Systems,  Defects  In 192 

Fuel  Tank,  How  to  Measure 134 

Function  of  Pedals 144 

Function  of  Separator 67 


G 

Gasoline  Mixture  Proportions 70 

Gasoline  Separator 67 

Gears  For  Power   Transmission 110 

General  Driving  Instructions 146 

Grinding  Valves 229 


H 

Hand  Lever,  Use  of 144 

Handling  Piston  Rings 232 

Heat  Loss  in  Engine 87 

Hints  on  Scraping  Bearings 243 

How  Engine  Speed  is  Altered 68 

IIow  Ford  Engine  Works 46 

How  Ford  Power  Plant  is  Oiled 94 

How  Hand  Lever  is  Used 144 

How  To  Dismantle  Engine 215 

How  To  Judge  Correct  Mixture 193 

I 

Ignition  System  Action ,  75 

Ignition  System  Parts 72 

Ignition   System   Parts,   Miscellaneous 191 

Ignition  System  Troubles,  Locating 183 

Induction  Coil  System  Explained 73 

Inner  Tube   Construction 131 

Inspection   of   Engine   Bearings 237 

Inspection  of  Piston  Rings 232 

Internal  Combustion,  Definition  of 47 

K 

Knocking  Indicates  Worn  Bearings 238 


Index                       ^  285 

L  PAGE 

Lighting  System 158 

Locating  Fuel  System  Faults 192 

Locating   Ignition    Troubles 186 

Locating  "Skipping"   Cylinder      .      , 187 


M 

Magneto,  Construction  of      .  • 79 

Magneto,   Parts  of 80 

Magneto,  Why  Used  on  Ford 78 

Main  Bearings,  Adjusting 239 

Master   Vibrator   System 84 

Measuring  Contents  of  Fuel  Tank 134 

Method  of  Grasping  Hand  Crank,  Correct 139 

Method  of  Grasping  Hand  Crank,  Incorrect 139 

Miscellaneous   Chassis   Parts 276 

Motor  Car  Components 22 

Muffler  Construction 97 

Multiple   Series 83 


N 
Noisy   Action,   Causes   of 211 


O 

Oiling  Ford  Power  Plant 94 

Oiling,  Suggestions  for • 198 

Oils,  How  Derived 92 

Oils,  Requirements  of 92 

Oil   System   Faults 194 

Oil,   Why   Used 91 

Outer  Casing  Parts 131 

Overhauling,    System    in 212 

Overhauling,  When  Necessary 210 

Overheating,    Causes    and    Prevention 197 


P 

Packings  and  Gaskets  for  Motor 258 

Parts  of  Ford  Chassis 25 


286  Index 

PAGE 

Parts  of  Rear  Axle 115 

Parts  of  Rear  Axle,  To  Examine 274 

Pedals,  What  They  Do 144 

Piston  Movements  in  Four  Cycle  Engine 54 

Piston    Rings,   Fitting    New 234 

Piston   Rings,   Inspection   of 232 

Piston  Rings,  Manipulation  of 232 

Piston  Rings,  Why  Used 57 

Placing  Control  Levers  When  Starting 137 

Planetary  Gearing  Operation 106 

Pneumatic  Tires,  Construction  of 128 

Power    Plant    Details 43 

Power   Plant   Faults,   How   Evidenced 210 

Power  Transmission  Method 110 

Precautions  in  Reassembling 261 

Precautions  When  Pouring  Gasoline 135 

Process  of  Grinding  Valves 229 

Prussian  Blue  Test  for  Valve  Seating 231 


R 

Radiator  and  Piping,  Deposits  in 194 

Rear  Axle,  Construction  of 115 

Rear  Axle,  Parts  of 115 

Rear  Axle  Repairs 272 

Rear  Axle  Troubles 271 

Rear   Brakes,   Inspection   of 204 

Rear  Wheels,  How  To   Remove 205 

Reasons  for  Slow  Starting 141 

Reassembling  Parts,  Precautions  in 260 

Relining  "Brake  Bands 270 

Remetalling    Connecting    Rods 247 

Removing  and  Applying  Tires 169 

Removing    Carbon    Deposits 222 

Removing  Cylinder  Head 217 

Removable  Cylinder  Head,  Advantages 59 

Repairing  Change  Speed  Gearing 264 

Repairing  Magneto 256 

Repairs  to  Rear  Axle 272 

Reseating    Valves 226 

Reversing  Car,  Method  of 145 

Roller  Bearings 117 


Index  287 

s 

PAGE 

Scraping  Bearings,  Hints  on 248 

Scraping  Bearings  To  Fit 240 

Series  Wiring 83 

Silencing  Exhaust  Gas 97 

"Skipping"  Cylinder,  How  To  Locate 187 

Slipping  Transmission  Bands 198 

Spark  Coil  Vibrator,  Adjustment  of 191 

Spark  Plugs,  Faults  and  Eemedies 189 

Special   Tool    Equipment 178 

Spring    Construction 38 

Spring   Repairs 277 

Starting  Positions  of  Spark  and  Throttle 137 

Steering   Gear  Action 125 

Steering  Gear  Repairs 278 

Steps  Before  Starting  Engine 134 

Suction  or  Charging  Stroke 51 

Suggestions  for  Oiling 148 

Summary  of  Ignition  System  Faults 187 

Systematic  Lubrication  Method      .  " 151 

System  in  Overhauling 212 


T 

Taking  Down   Engine 215 

Testing  Bearing  For  Fit 244 

Testing  Connecting  Rod  Bearing  Parallelism 249 

Testing  Valve  Seating 231 

Testing  Wheel  Looseness • 203 

Theory  of  Lubrication 91 

Three    Point    Suspension    Features 28 

Timer  Construction 77 

Timing    Ford    A^alves 255 

Tire  Inflation  Metliods 172 

Tire  Manipulation   Hints 169 

Tire  Repair  and  Maintenance 173 

Tire  Repairs,  By  Vulcanizing 177 

Tire  Repairs,  Tools  for 165 

Tire  Troubles,  Where  Found 175 

Tools  and  Supplies  for  Tire  Repairs 165 

Transmission   Bands,   Removing 269 

Transmission,  How  to  Adjust 198 


288  Index 

PAGE 

Transmission,  How  To  Dismantle 262 

Troubles   Causing   Engine   Stop 180 

Troubles  in  Ignition  Sj^stem 183 


U 

Universal  Joint.  Action 114 

Use   of   Tire   Irons 170 

Utility    of   Brakes 123 

Utility    of    Dry    Cells 81 


T 

Valve    Grinding    Process 22i> 

Valve  Operation  Means 5& 

Valve    Eemoval,    Tools    For 228 

Valve   Seating,   Test   for •.,...  231 

Valve  Timing  Method 252 

Valve  Timing   in   Ford   Engine 255 

Valves,    Keseating   and    Truing 226 


W 

Why  Clutch  is  Necessary 100 

Why  Cooling  Systems  Are   Necessary 81 

Why  Oil  is  Used 91 

Winter  Care  of  Automobiles 153 

Wiring  Diagrams  for  Dry  Cells '.  82 

Wiring  Diagram,  Ignition 76 

Wiring  Diagram,   Master  Vibrator 85 

Wiring    Dry    Cells 81 

Wiring    Electric    Lamps 164 

Wristpin    Wear ,      .  236 


JUST  PUBLISHED 
1816  lievr,  Kevised  and  Enlarged  Edition,  Showing  all  Recent  ImprovemenU 

THE  MODERN 
GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILE 

Its  Construction,  Operation,  Maintenance  and  Repair 

Ey  VICTOR  W.  PAGE,  M.E. 

Member  Society  of  Autoqiobile  Engineers 
600  Illustrations     Over  850  (5  }4x8)  Pages     Twelve  Folding  Plates 

Price  $2.50  net 


^V,  The  ModernGasoline 

4,  Us'tl,    ;:     KiM*!!'. 


A    Complete    Automobile    Book,    Showing    Every    Recent    Improvement 


THE  most  complcto  treatise  on  the  Gasoline  Automobile  ever  issued.     Writtrn  in  simple 
language  by  a  recognized  authority,  familiar  with  every  branch  of  the  automobile  industry. 
Free  from  technical  terms.     Everything  is  explained  so  simply  that  anyone  of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence may  gain  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  gasoline  automobile.     The  information' 
Is  up  to  date  and  includes,  in  addition  to  an  exposition  of  prmciples  of  construction  and  dRscriptioa 
of  all  types  of  automobiles  and  their  components,  valuable  money-saving  hints  on  the  care  and 
operation  of  motor  cars  propelled  by  internal  combustion  engines. 

CONTAINS  SPECIAL  CHAPTERS  ON 


I. — Types  of  Modern  Atitomobiles.  II. — How 
Power  is  Generated.  III. — Principal  Parts  of 
Gasoline  Engines;  Their  Design,  Construction 
and  .Application.  IV. — Constructional  Details 
of  Pistons,  v.— Liquid  Fuels  Used  and  Methods 
of  Vaporizing  to  Obtain  Explosive  Gas.  VI. — 
Atitomol)ile  Power-Plant  Ignition  Systems  Outr- 
lined.  VII. — Reasons  for  Lubrication  of  Me- 
chanism. VIII. — Iltility  of  Clutches  and 
Gear-sets.     IX. — The   Chassis   and   Its   Parts. 


X. — Wheels,  Rims  and  Tires.  XI. — Motor  Car 
Equipment  and  Accessories.  XII. — Operating 
Advice  and  Explanation  of  Automobile  Con- 
trol  Methods.  XIII. — Hints  to  Assist  in  Locat- 
ing Power-Plant  Troubles.  XIV. — Keeping  Up 
the  Motor-Car  Chassis.  XV. — Elements  of 
Magneto-Eleclric  Phenomena;  Why  Current 
Flows;  Action  of  High  Tension  Coil  Ignition  Sys- 
tems, etc.  •  All  191G  Improvements  Fully  de- 
scribed and  Illustrated 


TO  THE  1916  REVISED   EDITION 

The  subjeft  of  electrical  motor  starting  systems  has  been  considered  at  length  and  alL'Ieadlng 
systems  and  their  components  described.  A  discussion  on  ball  and  roller  bearing,  their  maintonanco 
and  installation,  has  also  been  included,  and  a  number  of  other  features  of  timely  interest  such  as 
latest  types  of  e;a.soline  and  kerosene  carburetors,  cycleca;r  power  plants,  the  Fischer  slide  valve 
motor,  detachable  wiro  wheels,  cantilever  springs,  eight  and  twelve-cylinder  motors,  new  valve  oper-. 
ating  systems,  Stewart-Warner  vacuum  fuel  feed.  Boat  typo  body  design,  leather  universal  ioints, 
Entz  electric  transmission,  positive  differential,  armored  automobilo,  hydraulic  brakes,  etc. 

Entirely  new  roatorial  has  been  added  on  tractors  in  thiro  and  four-wheel  forms,  cyclecars  and 
agricultural  tractors  or  automobilo  plows:  combination  gasoline-eUx;tric  drive,  fronl-wiieel  and  four- 
wheel  drivti  and  steer  systems  and  other  important  developments  in  power-propelled  v(!hicles.  The 
discussion  of  power  transmission  methods  has  been  augmented  by  consideration  of  the  skew  bevel 
?;ear  and  two-speed  direct  drive  rear  axle,  as  well  as  several  new  forms  of  woim  gear  drive,  etc., 
have  been  added  to  bring  the  work  thoroughly  up  to  date. 

The  book  tells  you  just  what  to  do,  how  and  when  to  do  it.     Nothing  has  been  omitted,  no  detail 
has  been  slighted.     Every  part  of  the  automobile,  its  equipment,  accessories,  tools,  supplies,  spare 
•parts  necessary,  etc..  have  been  discu.ssed  comprehensively.     If  you  are  or  inti'nd  to  beionie  a  motor- 
ist, or  ar  y  in  any  way  interested  in  the  modern  gasoline  automobile,  this  is  a  book  you  cannot  afford 
to  be  witliont. 

WHAT  IS  SAID   OF  THIS  BOOK: 

It  is  the  best  book  on  the  Automobile  seen  up  to  date. — J.  H.  Pile,  Associate  Editor,  Automobili 

Trade  Journal. 

Every  Automobilo  Owner  has  use  for  a  bock  of  this  character. — The  Tradesman. 

This  book  is  superior  to  any  treatise  heretofore  published  on  the  subject. — The  Inventive  Age. 

We  know  of  no  other  volume  that  is  so  complete  in  all  Its  d(partments.  and  in  which  the  wide 
field  of  automobilo  construction  with  its  mechanical  intricacies  is  so  plainl.v  handled,  both  in  the 
text  and  in  the  matter  of  illastrations. — The  Alotorist. 


Just  Published 


Indispensable  to  All  Who  Motor 


1916  Edition 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 


RELATING  TO  MODERN 


Automobile  Design,  Construction,  Driving  and  Repair 

By  VICTOR  W.  PAGE,   M.E. 
Author  of"The  Modern  Gasoline  Automobile,"  "The  Modern  Gas  Tractor."  Etc. 

650  Pages  (5)4x714)       350  Illustrations  and  Plates      Clotfi  Binding 


Price  $1.50 


A  Self-Educator  on  Automobiling  Without  an  Equal 

THIS  practical  treatise  consists  of  a  series  of  tliirty-seven  lemons,  covering  with  over  2.000 
questions  and  their  answers — tlie  automobile,  its  construction,  operation  and  repair.  Tho 
subject  matter  is  absolutely  correct  and  explained  in  simple  language.  If  you  can't  answer 
all  of  the  following  questions,  you  need  this  work.  Tho  answers  to  these  and  2,000  more  are  to 
be  found  in  its  pages. 

Give  the  name  of  all  important  parts  of  an  automobile  and  describe  their  functions?  Describe 
action  of  latest  types  of  Kerosene  carburetors?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  "Double"  ignition 
system  and  a  "dual"  ignition  system?  Name  parts  of  an  induction  coil?  How  are  valves  timed? 
What  is  an  electric  motor  starter  and  how  does  it  work?  What  are  advantages  of  worm  drive  gear- 
inc''  Name  ail  important  types  of  ball  and  roller  bearings?  What  is  a  "Three-quarter"  floating 
axle'  What  is  a  two-speed  axle?  What  is  the  Vulcan  electric  gear  shift?  Name  the  causes  of 
lost  power  in  automobiles?  Describe  all  noises  due  to  deranged  mechanism  and  give  causes?  How 
can  you  adjust  a  carburetor  by  the  color  of  the  exhaust  gases?  What  causes  "popping"  in  the 
carburetor '  What  tools  and  supplies  are  needed  to  equip  a  car?  How  do  you  drive  various  makes 
of  cars?  What  is  a  differential  lock  and  where  is  it  used?  Name  different  systems  of  wire  v,.ieel 
construction?     What  is  a  "jpositive"  drive  differential?  etc.  etc. 

Answers  every  question  asked  relating  to  the  modern  automobile, 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  37  LESSONS 


1. 

2. 


4. 
S. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 
11. 

12. 

13. 
14. 
15. 
10. 


The  Modem  Gasoline  Automobile  and  Its 
Principal  Parts.  ,       ^     , 

Action  of  Two  and  Four  Stroke  Cyclo 
Motors.  _ 

Parts  of  Gasoline  Motors  and  Their  Func- 
tions. 

Fuels  for  Automobile  Motors. 

Theory  of  Carburetion  and  Its  Application. 

Types  of  Carburetors  and  Their  Action. 

How  Gas  is  Exploded  in  Cylinder  to  Pro- 
duce Power. 

Parts  of  Ignition  Systems  and  Their  Pur- 
poses. 

Current  Producers,  Batteries,  Dynamos 
and  Magnetos. 

Low  Tension  Ignition  Systems. 

High  Tension  Ignition  Systems. 

Methods  of  Lubricating  the  Automobile 
Pow      Plant. 

Cooling  the  Gasoline  Engine  by  Air. 

Typical  Water  Cooling  Systems. 

ITseof  Clutch  and  VariousTypes  Described. 

The  Friction  Transmission. 


The  Individual  Clutch  Change  Speed  Gear. 

Action  of  Sliding  (iear  Transniis.sion. 

Methods  of  Drive  to  Rear  Wheels. 

Differential  Gear  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion. 

Rear  Axle  Types. 

Automobile  Frames  and  Springs. 

The  Steering  Gear  and  Front  Axlo. 

Wheels.  Rims  and  Tires. 

Automobile  Bearings  and  Their  Care. 

•  How  to  Start  and  Control  Automobile 
Power  Plant. 

Methods  of  Speed  Changing  Outlined. 

Utility  of  Brakes  and  Their  Use. 

General   Driving   Instructions. 

Oiling  the  Automobile  Chassis. 

Road  Troubles  and  Their  Symptoms. 

Repairing  Power  Plant  Group. 

Troubles  With  Pdwer  Transmission  Mech- 
anism. 

Chassis  Troubles  and  Their  EUmination. 

Fixing  Tire  Defects. 

Equipment  and  Accessories. 

in  1916  Automobiles 


WHAT  IS  SAID  OF  THIS  BOOK: 

If  you  own  a  car— Get  this  book.— T/ie  Glassworkcr.  ^.jv,,        t,-,,^, 

Mr  Page  has  the  faculty  of  making  difficult  subjects  plain  and  understandable. — Bnatol  Press. 

We    can   name   no   writer  better  qualiliod   to  prepare  a  book  of  instruction  on  automobiles  than 

Mr.  Victor  W.  Ppge. — Scientific  American. 

The  best  automobile  catechism  that  has  appeared. — .AulomntAle  Topics.         .,„     .        .      ,r 

There  are  few  nicw  twuu  vrtth  long  experience  who  will  not  find  this  book  useful. — Engineering  A  ews. 


JUST  PUBLISHED 


Modern  Starting,  Lighting 

and  Ignition  Systems 


MODERN 

:,.  STARTING.LIGHTIN(> 

V    IGNlTlON'sySTEM^ 

PACE 


By  VICTOR  W.  PAGE,  M.E. 

Member  Society  of  Automobile  Engineers 
Author  of  "  The  Modern  Gasoline  Automobile,"  etc. 

250  Specially  Made  Engravings 
Nearly  400  (5  lix8)  P^es  Folding  Plates 


Price  $1.50 


A   Self-Educator    on    Electrical   Systems  Without  an  Equal 

THIS  practical  volume  has  been  written  ■with  special  reference  to  the  requirements  :tf  the  non- 
technical reader  desiring  easily  tinderstood  explanatory  matter  relating  to  all  types  of  auto- 
mobile ignition,  starting  and  lighting  systems.  It  can  be  imderstood  by  anyone,  even  with- 
out electrical  knowledge,  because  elementary  electrical  principles  are  considered  before  any 
attempt  is  made  to  discuss  features  of  the  various  systems.  These  basic  principles  are  clearly 
stated  and  illustrated  with  simple  diagrams.  All  the  leading  sysiems-of  starting,  lighting  and  ignition 
have  been  described  and  illustrated  with  the  co-operation  of  the  experts  employed  by  the  manufacturers. 
Wiring  diagrams  arc  shown  in  both  technical  and  non-technical  forms.  All  symbols  are  fully  explained. 
This  is  a  book  of  real  merit. 

m  comprehensive  review  of  modern  starting  and  ignition  system  practice,  giving  full 
Instructions  for  the  repair  and  care  of  stor?,ge  batteries,  generators,  regulating  devices,  starting 
motors,  etc.,  and  all  representative  systems  are  described  in  detail,  the  text  matter  being  accompanied 
b.v  complete  diagrams  showing  all  connections  and  the  relation  tho  various  parts  of  the  assembly 
bear  to  each  other.  Complete  data  is  given  for  locating  troubles  in  all  systems,  the  various  steps 
being  considered  in  a  logical,  systematic  manner,  that  can  be  ea.sily  followed  by  those  without  expert 
electrical  knowledge.  All  ignition  systems  receive  full  consideration,  starting  with  the  simplest 
batterj'  and  coil  forms  found  on  early  cars  to  the  modem  short-contact  timer  and  magneto  methods 
iised  with  the  latest  eight  and  twelve  cylinder  motors.  Every  ignition,  starting  or  lighting  system 
component  is  considered  individually  and  full  directions  aro  given  for  making  aU  repairs.  This  hook 
Is  imasually  complete  as  it  also  includes  descriptions  of  various  accessories  operated  by  electric 
current  such  as  electrical  gear  shifts,  brake  actuation,  signaUng  de'-ices,  viUcanizers,  etc.  Considers 
the  s.'^stems  of  cars  already  in  use  as  well  as  those  that  are  to  come  in  1916.    A  book  every  one  iieeds« 

Nothing  has  been  omitted,  no  details  have  been  slighted 
A.  book  you  cannot  afford  to  be  ■without 

CONDENSED  SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS: 

I. — Elementary  Electricity;  Current  Production;  P'low;  Circuits;  Measurement;  DeflnltlonB; 
Magnetism;  Battery  Action;  Generator  Action.  II. — Battery  Ignition  Systems.  III. ^Magneto 
Ignition  Systems.  IV. — Elementary  Exposition  of  Starting  System  Principles.  V. — Typical 
Starting  and  Lighting  Systems;  Practical  Application;  \Viring  Diagrams;  Auto-lito,  Bijur,  Delco, 
"DjTieto-Entz,  Gray  and  Davis,  Remy,  U.  S.  L.,  Westlnghousc,  Bosch-Rushmore,  Genemotor. 
North-East,  etc.  VI. — Locating  and  RcpairingTroubles  in  Starting  and  Lighting  Systems.  VII. — 
Auxiliary  Electric  Systems;  Gear-shifting  by  Electricity;  Warning  Signals;  Electric  Brake;  Eats 
Transmission,  etc. 


JUST  PUBLISHED 


Automobile  Repairing 

Made  Easy 

By  VICTOR  W.  PAGE,  M.  E. 

Member  Society  of  Automobile  Engineers 
•Author  of  "The  Modern  Gasoline  Automobile,"  Etc. 

1056  Pages   (5  3^x8)  10  Folding  Plates 

1000    Specially  Made  Engravings  on  500  Plates 

Price  $3.00  Net 

A  Comprehensive,   Practical   Exposition  of  Every  Phase  of 
Modern  Automobile  Repairing  Practice 

The  only  book  of  its  kind       '  It  fills  a  real  demand 

OUTLINES  every  process  incidental  to  motor  car  restoration.  Gives  r'ans  for  vrorksllop  con- 
struction, suggestions  for  equipment,  power  needed,  machinery  and  tools  necessary  to  carry 
on  business  successfully.  Tells  how  to  overhaul  and  repair  all  parts  of  all  automobiles.  Tho 
information  given  is  founded  on  practical  experience,  everything  is  explained  so  simply  that 
motorists  and  students  can  acquire  a  full  working  knowledge  of  automobile  repairing.  Other  works 
dealing  with  repairing  cover  only  certain  parts  of  the  car — this  work  starts  with  tho  engine,  then 
considers  carbiu-etion,  ignition,  cooling  and  lubrication  systems.  Tho  clutch,  change  speed  gearing 
and  transniisjion  system  are  considered  in  detail.  Contains  instructions  for  repairing  all  types  of 
axles,  steering  gears  and  other  chassis  parts.  Many  tables,  short  cuts  in  figuring  and  rules  of  practice 
are  given  for  the  mechanic.  Explains  fully  valve  and  magneto  timing,  "tuning"  engines,  systematic 
location  of  trouble,  repair  of  ball  and  roller  bearing,  shop -kinks,  first  aid  to  injured  and  a  multitude 
cf  subjects  of  interest  to  all  in  tho  garage  and  repair  business.  All  illustrations  are  especially  made 
for  this  book,  and  are  actual  photographs  or  reproductions  of  engineering  drawings. 

This  book  also  contains  Special  Instructions  on  Electric  Starting.  Lighting  and  Ignition  Systems, 
Tire  Repairing  and  Rebuilding,  Autogenous  Welding.  Brazing  and  Soldering,  Heal  Treatment  of  Steel, 
Latest  Timing  Practice,  Eight  and  Twelve  Cylinder  Motors,  etc.,  etc.  You  will  never  "Get  Stuck"  on 
a  Job  if  you  own  this  book. 

COnDE^SZO  SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS: 

1.  Tho  Automobile  Repair  Shop.  Buildings  for  Repair  Work.  Machinery  and  Power.  Ar- 
rangement of  Departments.  Bench  and  Floor  Equipment.  2.  Small  Tool  Equipment  for  Repair 
Shops.  Tools  for  Adjusting  and  Erecting.  Precision  Measuring  Tcx)ls  and  Their  Use.  Special  Tools. 
Complete  List  of  Tools  and  Supplies  Needed.  3.  Overhauling  the  Gasoline  Engine.  How  to^Dis- 
mantle  Motor.  Defects  in  all  ^'^|Otor  Parts.  Repairing  Scored  and  Cracked  Cylinders.  Valve 
Itepairs.  Fitting  Bearings.  Valve  Timing.  Eight  Cylinder  V  Motors,  Sleeve  Valve  Motors. 
4.  Cooling.  Carburetion  and  Lubrication  System  Faults,  Overheating.  Radiator  Repairs.  Water 
Pump  Repairs.  Fuel  Feed  Methods.  Adjusting  Carburetors.  Oiling  Systems.  Where  to  Look 
for  Lubrication  Trouble.  5.  Location  and  Remedy  of  Ignition  Faults.  Battery  Ignition  System. 
Magneto  Systems.  How  to  Find  All  Ignition  Troubles.  Magneto  Care  and  Adjustment.  Modern 
Ignition  Timing.  6.  Motor  Starting  and  Car  Lighting  Systems.  Leading  Systems  Described  in 
Detail.  Wiring  Diagrams.  Tracing  Faults.  7.  Clutch  and  Gearbox  Faults.  Principal  Clutch 
Troubles  Outhned.  Clutch  Repair.  Planetary  Gearsets.  Friction  Drives.  Sliding  Gear  Trans- 
missions. 8.  Faults  in  Chassis  Components.  Overhsculing  the  Chassis.  Spring  Repairs.  Steering 
Gears.  9.  The  Rear  Axle  and  Driving  System.  Semi,  Three-quarter  and  Full  Floating  Axles.  Care 
of  Drive  and  DiiTerential  Gears.  Axle  Bearings.  10.  Wheel,  Rims  and  Tires.  Wire  Wheels.  All 
Types  of  Rims.  Rebuilding  and  Repairing  Tires.  II.  Miscellaneous  Repair  Processes.  Autogenous 
Welding.  Heat  Treatment  of  Steel.  Brazing  and  Soldering.  12.  Useful  Information.  13.  Hints,. 
Kinks,  Recipes  and  Formulae.  14.  Useful  Tables  for  Mechanics.  Mathematical,  Mechanical,  in- 
cluding Horse-power  and  Speed  Charts. 


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